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PROPERTY OF 


THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 


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| (Bod . 


CONDITION 
DATE NAME When 1. cn 


|  Loaned Returned 


The Board of Education loans text-books to pupils on the follow- 
ing conditions: 

lst—-They are to be carefully used and not be marked, defaced or 
otherwise damaged beyond a natural and reasonable wear and tear. 

2nd—They are not to be taken from the schoolroom without con- 
sent of the teacher. 

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the pupil. 

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pupil shall be paid for by him. ' 

The amount of damage for loss or injury or the price of book, 
will be fixed by the Prineipal, and is payable on demand. 


15M 8-27 


UAWOP, WOU ONIGVAY VW 


vulspey-vuTy Aq Suryureg 04} WoT 


THE NEW REED AND KELLOGG 


LESSONS IN ENGLISH 


BY 


ARTHUR LEE 


SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLINTON, MISSOURI 
BASED ON THE TEXTS BY 


ALONZO REED 


AND 


BRAINERD KELLOGG 


BOOK TWO 


ENLARGED EDITION 


&- 
CHARLES E. MERRILL COMPANY 
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 


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PREFACE 


Tur vogue of the Reed and Kellogg Grapzp LEssons 
in EncuisH and Higurer Lessons In ENGLISH, extending 
over more than a generation, is one of the remarkable facts 
in the history of American school texts. The continuing 
popularity of the series and its immense sales prove that 
the books have an amazing vitality and adaptability. 
Teachers and pupils pay them the high tribute of satisfac- 
tion and confidence. 

With the rearrangement and enrichment of the elementary 
course in English, there came a time when many teachers 
felt that the essential soundness of the Reed and Kellogg 
series and its power of interesting and enlightening should be 
systematicaily adapted to present practices and needs. New 
methods and new programs of education required some 
eliminations and the additions of whatever of value has been 
established by the enthusiastic attention to English teach- 
ing in the last two decades. At the same time, it was ob- 
viously desirable to retain all those merits of the books 

which have helped tens of thousands of classes to a better 
grasp of our language. 

The standing of ‘‘Reed and Kellogg”’ ‘has been due in 
large measure to the scholarly thoroughness with which the 
series was made. To determine what good usage is respect- 
ing many points in debate by purists and grammarians, the 
authors went to the original source of linguistic authority, 
the writers of highest repute in recent generations. Fifty 


authors were selected, and 300 pages of each—15,000 pages 


4 PREFACE 


in all—were carefully read. The usage of these authors, 
minutely noted and recorded, formed the basis of the ‘‘ Reed 
and Kellogg” judgments as to what good English is. 

In a few particulars, usage has changed in recent years. 
Wherever this was the case, statements have been changed 
in the present book so as to accord with the best modern 
authority. In the treatment of composition, the series has 
been thoroughly revised and enlarged in accordance with 
the spirit and the method of a changed language curriculum. 
In grammar, the principal changes have been in the direction 
of simplification and abridgment. 

It is in the teaching of composition that the greatest ad- 
vances in elementary English instruction have been made in 
recent years. Consequently, some portions of the earlier 
‘Reed and Kellogg”’ have been eliminated, and a great deal 
of new material has been added. ‘The increasing use of 
literature, both prose and poetry, not only as models but 
as a means of stirring the imagination and freeing tongue and 
pen, is reflected in this revision. The use of pictures, the 
relation of expression work to life, the harmonizing of the 
book problems with the child’s world, are here emphasized. 
It has not been forgotten, however, that every good text 
in this field must be in large measure a drill book. Much 
talking and much writing on subjects which occupy the 
pupil’s mind—to which he gives attention in his other 
studies or in which he can easily be led to take an inter- 
est—have been provided for. 

A noteworthy excellence of ‘‘Reed and Kellogg” has 
always been its clear and thorough exposition of the sen- 
tence. No pupil of average ability could faithfully work 
through the old Reed and Kellogg books without getting a 
grasp upon sentence structure. which made him a clearer 
thinker and added largely to his power of expression. It 
was the undeniable gain in ability to thm aright and to 


PREFACE 5 


embody the thought in felicitous discourse—the product of 
sentence analysis—that led James A. Garfield to make this 
statement: 


“T have taught, more or less, almost every subject embraced 
in the ordinary school or college course, and the most fruitful 
discipline of all for young pupils I consider to be grammatical 
analysis.” 


Had President Garfield been trained in our present philosophy 
of education, he would probably have avoided the word 
discipline; but he need not have changed his conviction as 
to the value of a thorough understanding of sentence struc- 
ture to those who are learning to talk and to write. The 
paramount excellence of the old books, the illumination of 
the sentence, has been studiously retained in the new. 

A part of the success of “‘ Reed and Kellogg”’ in elucidating 
sentence structure is due to its system of diagrams—a system 
which in its unrivalled clearness, simplicity, and convenience 
ameunts to a stroke of genius. For some years a storm of 
criticism beat upon the sentence diagram, a storm raised 
not by those who taught grammar to children, but by 
mature scholars who had long passed the stage when they 
needed the assistance of such a device. With the refusal 
of teachers and pupils to be swerved from their adherence 
to this practical means of saving labor, and with the in- 
creasing emphasis upon graphical representation in educa- 
tion, there has been a strong recurrence to the use of the 
diagram. Only the abuse of diagraming led to whatever 
opposition arose against its use. Teachers should, of course, 
employ this aid with judgment. The diagram was never a 
vital part of ‘Reed and Kellogg,” and it is not in this re- 
vision; it is only a help. 

The terminology of the Joint Committee on Nomenclature 
of the National Education Association has been very largely 
used in these books. It has not seemed wise to introduce, all 


6 PREFACE 


at once, the new nomenclature in all of its details, for 
schools and teachers must grow into the new terminology 
after some points have been satisfactorily worked out by. 
further study. 

The revision has had the advantage of the codperation of 
Dr. Brainerd Kellogg, one of the original authors. Dr. 
Kellogg, whose success and ripe experience in textbook- 
making give him a high place in American education, fur- 
nished a large collection of notes for the new series, and has 
worked with the reviser in the production of “The New 
Reed and Kellogg.” 

The composition lessons in Part Two should be taught 
along with the grammar of Part Onn. ‘The days of the 
school week may be apportioned between the two divisions 
of the subject as the teacher sees fit, or the lessons may be 


alternated by weeks. A Study Outline arranged to combine 
Parts One and Two may be found on page 313. 


Acknowledgment of permission to use selections in this 
book is due to Houghton Mifflin Company for the extract 
from Lincoln, Master of Men by Alonzo Rothschild and 
for “Opportunity”? by Edward Rowland Sill; to Charles 
Scribner’s Sons for the selection from Fisherman’s Luck by 
Henry van Dyke; to D. C. Heath and Company for the 
selection from Education for Efficiency by Eugene Daven- 
port; to The Macmillan Company for the extract from 
The Making of an American by Jacob Riis; and to 
Doubleday, Page and Company for the letter from Recol- 
lections and Letters of General Lee by Captain R. E. Lee. 


— 


CONTENTS 


PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


THE SENTENCE 


- LESSON 
. Parts of the Sentence 
_ Sentences Classified ee oraink to Use? 


Nouns 


. Verbs 
. Pronouns 


Modifiers; rabyale Ai eee 
Diagrams. 


. Adjectives . : 

. Predicate Modifiers : 

. Other Modifiers . 

. Adverbs . 

. Analysis of Petancts 

_ A Phrase Introduced by a Pcie 
. Prepositions : 
. Compound Subject oad Ceamoate Pesdicnte : 
. Conjunctions and Interjections . eens 

: Complements; The Direct Obiect . 

. Predicate Adjective and Predicate Noun 
. Analysis and Parsing 

. Objective Complements 

, Analysis and Parsing 

. Review 


PAGBD 


15 
16 
18 
19 
21 
21 
23 
24. 
25 
27 
28 


. 30 


30 
53) 
36 
oo 
41 
43 
45 
46 
48 
49 


8 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 


20: 
24. 
20. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
oly 
oO. 
Oo; 
34. 
OO; 
36. 
Bilis 
38. 
39. 
AO. 
Al. 
42. 
43. 
44, 
Ad. 
A6. 
A7. 


‘48. 
49, 
50. 
ol. 
52. 
53. 


Participles . : 
Functions of Purticipen 
Infinitives 

Functions of (aenitres 


Functions of Infinitives; Infinitive Clauses . 


Review of Participles and Infinitives . 
Gerunds . 

Nouns as Rioditeas De ea ae 

Words and Phrases aed Tadependentiee 
Nouns as Adverbial Modifiers 

Review E é 

Complex Bea tintee : 

Complex Sentences; Moines Cheeta 
Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses 
Complex Se Adverbial Clauses 
Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses . 
Complex Sentences; Substantive Clauses 
Complex Sentences; Substantive Clauses 
Review of Complex and Simple Sentences 
Review of Complex Sentences 

Compound Sentences 

Complex and Compound lgunes 

Review of Sentences 

Review of Sentences 

Review of Analysis . 


THE: PAR YS -OF SPEC 


Classes of Nouns . 

Classes of Pronouns . nits 
Nouns and Pronouns: Number . 
Nouns and Pronouns: Gender 
Nouns and Pronouns: Person 
Nouns and Pronouns: Case 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 


5A. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
«58. 

59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
Ta 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
rive 
78. 
79. 
80. 


mm Wh Re 


Nouns and Pronouns: Person and Case . 
The Declension of Nouns and Pronouns . 
Possessive Forms 

Forms of the Pronoun . 

Analysis and Parsing 

Classes of Verbs . 

Verbs: Voice 

Verbs: Mood and Tense 

Conjugation of Verbs 

Conjugation of the Verb Be 

Conjugation of See in the Simple Form 
Special Forms of the Verb 

Agreement of the Verb 

The Use of Shall and hee 

Review of Verbs . 


The Proper Use of the Ver ae a ee Sit, Set 


Errors of Speech . 

Analysis; Parsing Verbs 

Classes of Adjectives 

Comparison of Adjectives . 

Classes cf Adverbs 

Comparison of Adverbs 

The Correct Use of Adjectives er Advetos: 
Conjunctions BEC i, oo 
Prepositions 

Interjections ae 
Words Used as eto Parts mE Siaeae 


PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


. A Stock of Words 

. Word Study 

. The Use of Capital Lees 
. Writing Sentences is 


10 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 


26. 


. Three Little Masterpieces . .. .. .« 
. Punctuation 3 

. Variety in the Sirnetirs ite Sentenee i 

. Variety in the Structure of Sentences . 

. Variety in the Structure of Sentences . 

. Study of a Poem . 

. Paragraphs; Outlines 

. Oral Composition; A Taik 

. Dictation; Paragraphs . 

. Description : 

. Punctuation : 

. Picture Study and Desnceen 

. Narration i nae ae 

. Some Common Errors . 

. Reasoning from Observation 

. Telling the News from the Paper 

. Letter Paper and Envelopes . 

. Letters of Friendship 

. Writing Quotations . 

. Picture Study and Dasenonon 

. Punctuation; The Comma ; 
Dictation; Acree of Bhyan Vena 
. The Bares of a Letter 

. Study of a Speech 

. The Use of Adjectives . 

. study of a Poem . : 

. Punctuation of Compound cL apenets 

. The Heading of a Letter ; 
. Oral Composition; Reports on Raat : 
. Picture Study and Description 

5. Exposition. . 

. A School Paper : 

. The Preparation of Adan neeripee 

3. Exposition . 


PAGE 


181 
183 
185 
188 
190 
192 
194 
196 


anise 


198 
200 
200 
201 
203 
205 
206 
207 
209 
211 
214 
215 
217 
217 
219 
220 
223 
225 
227 
229 
231 
231 
233 
234 
237 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 


39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 


49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54, 
55. 
56. 


57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
vitae 


Dictation; Correct Speech 

Oral Composition; A Talk 

Essential and Non-Essential Clauses 

Description of a Paintnmg . . . . 

Address and Salutation of Letters . 

The Order of Modifiers 

Description: of a Building . 

Various Uses of the Comma . 

Dictation; Letter Writing 

The Body of the Letter and the Clare Wetters bf 
Introduction 4, ae ene 

A Conversation on Gira Frente 

Exposition . 

Narration : : 

Narration: Biaeane : 

Narration: Autobiography 

Punctuation: Colon, Dash, Parenthesis 

Business Letters . 

Letter Writing: The Signature Aah the hee 
scription ior 

Composition: een A a ation Petre 

Exposition . 

Letter Writing 

Folding the Letter Birla! EON he 

Synonyms and Antonyms; Use of the Dictionary 

Argument : 

Description of a Benene : 

Argument 

Debating 

Letter Writing 

Dictation 

Notes and Peeiceuione 

Argument 

Debating 


11 
PAGE 


236 
237 
238 
241 
241 
243 
246 
247 
249 


250 
252 
253 
254 
207 
258 


.~ 258 


261 


263 
265 
266 
267 
267 
269 
271 
272 
273 
275 
279 
280 
280 
284 
285 


12 CONTENTS 


LESSONS - : PAGE 
7b Pelesranis +.0. *7% wo 6 Vel RS eee 
72. Writing ieeenticoribane oo, LSS er 
73. Letters of Application... = a 
74, Study of a Speech '.0°. .> ic). 4) rr 
75. The Minutes of a Meeting  . > . 5 eee 


SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS IN WORD STUDY 


AND COMPOSITION 
Worp Strupy 


1. Finding Words in the Eeatanaey 4 et eee 
2. The Treasure House of Words ... . ... 298 
3. What the Dictionary Tells; Spelling and 
Syllabication of Words . . . . . 4 + = 302 
4. What the Dictionary Tells; Pronunciation . . 304 
5. What the Dictionary Tells; Meaning. . . 306 


6. A Better English Club Meeting; New Words 09 


PARAGRAPH STUDY 
7. Amplification of Paragraphs. . . =|.) 5a 311 
8. Condensation of Paragraphs ... . ..- - 316 


CoRRECTIVE WORK IN SENTENCES 
9. Combining Several Ideas into One Sentence. . 321 
10. Changing One Kind of Sentence into Another . 323 


ERRORS OF SPEECH’ « . + © o's) See 
Wrrrtren’ ERRORS 2 Nios. <3 SoG) 5) 329 
GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR. . - - + + + > 330 
Topics FOR ORAL AND WRITTEN COMPOSITION. . . 304 
ABBREVIATIONS «-.0 0) 2 SE) 6) Ny 338 


ContTEeNTs ARRANGED TO COMBINE PARTS ONE AND 
Two. 8 oa oe eee re 


INDEX 2 ov dL oe Bt Se) rrr 


PART ONE 
GRAMMAR 


Ne P 
J ser 


> 


lbs: avs 5 beng, 


et ee ee 


PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
THE SENTENCE 
LESSON 1 
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 


Whenever we talk or write, we express thoughts. 
When we say, ‘‘ Water freezes,” the words express to 
others the thought we have in mind. We call these 
words a sentence. 

The first word, water, names what we are thinking 
and talking about. The second word, freezes, tells 
what we think about water—that it freezes. The 
first word is the subject of the sentence; the second 
word is the predicate. 

Sentences differ in many ways; some are long and 
contain many words; but every sentence is the expres- 
sion of a thought, and every sentence has a subject and 


a predicate. 


A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought. 

The subject of a sentence names that of which something 
is thought. | 

The predicate of a sentence tells what is thought about 
the subject. 


EXERCISE 1 


I. Make sentences by expressing thoughts about the things 
that are here named. The words given will then be subjects 


16 PART ONE: GRAMMAR. ~ 


and what you say about them will be predicates. eG 
predicate may be only one word, or it may be. two or mc 
words. <7 


1. Horses 4. Diamonds 7. Sailoyet . 


2. Stars 5. Robins 8. Banners 
3. Lions 6. Frogs 9: Rain ys 


II. Name the subject and the predicate in each of these ser 
tences: , 


. Leaves are falling. 

. Planets revolve. 

. Cornwallis surrendered. 

. Flags were flying. 

. Columbus was imprisoned. 

Summer has gone. 

. Air may be weighed. 

. André was captured. 

. Treason should have been punished. 
. Louisiana was purchased. 


SOON DaA KR ww He 


f— 


i LESSON 2 
SENTEN CES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE 


Sentences are used in different ways. If I say, ‘The 
train is late,” I make a statement. 

If I inquire, ‘Is the train late?” I use the sentence tc 
ask a question. 

I may be annoyed because the train is late and say 
with feeling, ‘‘How late the train is!’ This sentence is 
an exclamation. 


e, 


IT 


SENTENCES CLASSIFIED 17 


If I say, “Wait till the train comes,’ I express a 
command and use an imperative sentence. | 


A declarative sentence makes a statement. 

An interrogative sentence asks a question. 

An exclamatory sentence expresses sudden thousht or 
strong feeling. 

An imperative sentence expresses a command or a re- 
quest. | 


Nore. Sentences that contain a negative word (as not, never) 
are sometimes described as negative sentences.. All other sentences 
are affirmative. | 

Negative sentence: I am not going. 
Affirmative sentence: Am I going? I may go. 


Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 

Place a period at the end of a declarative or an im- 
perative sentence. 

Place a question mark at the end of an interrogative 
sentence. , 

Place an exclamation point at the end of an exclam- 
atory sentence. 


EXERCISE 2 lA 
I. Tell what kind of sentence each of these vs: 


1. The sun that brief December day 
Rose cheerless over hills of gray. 


. I have given you streams to fish in. 
. Stand by the flag. 

. Who killed Cock Robin? 

. What is the capital of Japan? 


or fe W bo 


18 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


6. Give me of your bark, O Birch Tree. 
7. The judge rode slowly down the lane, 
Smoothing his horse’s chestnut mane. 

8. How short our happy days appear! 

9. What is left when honor is lost? 
10. What a piece of work is man! 
11. What is man that Thou art mindful of him? 
12. A friend should bear a friend’s infirmities. 


II. Write five declarative, five interrogative, three imperative, 
and two exclamatory sentences. 


s 2 


LESSON 3 
e NOUNS 


When we consider the words we use, we see that 
many of them are names; as, desk, pencil, father, Mary, 
Mr. Baldwin, heat, industry. These we call nouns. 
You will find that every subject of a sentence is a noun, 
or some word or words used as a noun. 

Some nouns name classes of things; as, boy, girl, 
country. ‘These are called common nouns. Others are 
individual, or proper, names; as, James, Mary, America. 


A ncun is a word used as the name of anything. 

A common noun is a name which belongs to all things 
of a class. | 

A proper noun is the individual name of a particular per- 
son, place, or thing. , 


Every proper noun begins with a capital letter. 


VERBS 19 


EXERCISE 3 


I. Select the nouns in the following passage. Tell which 
are individual, or proper, names. 


Now, to tell the truth, from the very first mention of 
Long John in Squire Trelawney’s letter, I had taken a fear 
in my mind that he might prove to be the very one-legged — 
sailor whom I had watched for so long at the old Benbow. 
But one look at the man before me was enough. I had 
seen the captain and Black Dog and the blind man Pew, 
and I thought that I knew what a buccaneer was like—a 
very different creature, according to me, from this clean 
and pleasant-tempered landlord. 

I plucked up courage at once, crossed the threshold, and 
walked right up to the man where he stood, propped on his 
crutch, talking to a customer. . , 

“Mr. Silver, sir?” I asked, holding out the note. 

Rozert Louts STEVENSON, from Treasure Island 


Il. Write twenty common nouns. Ten proper nouns. 


LESSON 4 oe 


VERBS 


You have learned that one large class of words con- 
sists of names of things. There is another class of 
words which are used to tell what things do or to ex- 
press existence. 

When we say, “Dogs bark,” bark is not used to 
name anything; it tells what dogs do. It asserts action. 

When we say, “God is,” 2s simply expresses exist- 
ence, or being. _ 


20 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


In the sentence “Grandfather sleeps,” sleeps tells 
the condition, or state, in which Grandfather i is; that 
is, it expresses the state of being. 

All the words that assert action, being, or state of 
being we call verbs. 

A verb may consist of two, three, or four words; 
as, 1S singing, will be sung, might have been sung. 

As verbs are the only words that assert, every predi- 
cate must contain a verb. 


A verb is a word that asserts action, being, or svate of 
being. 


) 


EXERCISE 4 ‘ 


I. Select the verbs in these sentences: 


. Come into the garden, Maud. 
Where is my book? 
The old man told his story. 
. I will. write. 
“Oh!” I cried, ‘stop him.” 
6. The man who was nearest the door leaped up and 
started in pursuit. 
7. Home land and far land and half the world around, 
Old Glory hears the ae salute and ripples to the 
sound. 


8. This work could have been finished in a day. 


Pa eee bee 


9. Silence never betrays you. 


10. The sky is dark and the hills are white, 
As the storm-king speeds from the north to-night. 


Il. Write ten achitences and underline the verbs. 


MODIFIERS; ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 21 


LESSON 5 
PRONOUNS 


it is often convenient to use a word in place of a 
noun. John, in speaking of himself, does not say, . 
“John forgot John’s book,” but “T forgot my book.” 
In addressing Mary, we say, “Vou forgot the book,” 
not ‘‘Mary forgot the book.” 

T, you, he, she, vt, we, and they are some of the words 
that are used instead of names, or nouns. 


A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 


The pronoun I is written as a capital letter. 


It is convenient to have a term that applies to both 
nouns and pronouns, and to other words that do the 
work of a noun. Such words are called substantives. 


EXERCISE 5 
I. Select all the pronouns in Exercise 3. 


VIL. Write twenty sentences containing pronouns and under- 
line the pronouns. Si 

3 iY 
LESSON 6 


MODiFIERS; ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 


You have seen that a noun, or a pronoun, and a 
verb sometimes make a complete sentence; as, I walk, 
Planets revolve. More often such words are used as 
the foundation of a sentence, which 1s completed by 
adding other parts. ‘‘Owls are hooting’’ is a sentence. 


22 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


We may also say, Oe ous are hooting,’ or ‘‘Those 
owls are hooting,”’ or ‘‘Those big, gray one are hoot- 
ing.”” The words ie those, big, gray, we call modifiers 
of the subject. owls. 


A modifier is a word, or a group of words, joined to some 
part of a sentence to qualify or limit the meaning. 

The subject with its modifiers is the complete subject. 

The subject without its modifiers is the simple subject or 
the subject substantive. 


The analysis of a sentence consists in Separating it 
into its parts. 


MoprE.t ror ANnatysis. The cool October days have 
come. 


This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is 
the cool October days. The subiect substantive is the noun 
days. The predicate is have come. Days is modified by the, 
cool, and October. 


EXERCISE 6 
Analyze the following sentences, according to the model above: 


. The cock is crowing. — 

. The small birds twitter. 

The cattle are grazing. 

. The snow has retreated. 

. Small clouds are sailing. 

. The ragged continental troops had advanced. 
. The searchlight flashed. 

. Radium was discovered. 

. The milk soured. 


OWI A MP wD 


DIAGRAMS 25° 


10. The mighty oak was uprooted. 
11. Big bonfires were lighted. 
12. The vivid lightning flashes. 


LESSON 7 
DIAGRAMS 


Instead of writing out the analysis of a sentence, we 
may make a diagram. ‘his saves us the labor of 
writing, and has the advantage of enabling us to see 
at a glance the relations of the different parts of the 
sentence. We draw a line and divide it in the middle, 
thus: 


——— 


To the left of the dividing line we write the subject; 
and to the right of the dividing line, the predicate, 
thus: 


Louisiana | was purchased 


When the subject has modifiers, we place them upon 
slanting lines drawn from the line upon which the 
subject is written. The sentence “The cool October 
days have come” is diagramed thus: 


days have come 


24 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE 7 


According to the model given on page 28, you may diagram 
the sentences in Exercise 6. 


LESSON 8 
ADJECTIVES 


The words added to the subject substantive to 
modify its meaning, like the, cool, and October in the 
sentence “The cool October days have come,” are~ 
called adjectives. | 7 

Adjectives may be joined to substantives that are 
used otherwise than as subjects of sentences. 

4. separate class may be made of the adjectives the, 
a, and an. They are called articles. 


An adjective is a word used to modify a substantive. 


Parsing is describing the grammatical form of a 
word and telling its use in the sentence. 
& 


MODEL FOR ORAL Parsine. The daily newspapers were 
distributed. : 
. The and daily are adjectives because they modify the 
noun newspapers; newspapers is a noun because it is the name 
of something; were distributed is a verb because it asserts. 


Moperu ror WRITTEN PARSING 


Nouns Pronouns Adjectives Verbs 


The 


; were distributed 
daily 


newspapers 


PREDICATE MODIFIERS Bes 


EXERCISE 8 
J. Analyze and diagram these sentences: 


_ The midnight signal was given. 

_ Brave Paul Revere was riding. 

_ The farmers were awakened. 

_ The British Regulars fled. 

Both positions can be defended. 

_ All such discussion should be avoided. 


aT, OL me CO NM 


- LT alone have escaped. 
_ That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen. 
_ The great Lincoln Highway was built. 


Cc OO 


10. Many marvelous engineering feats have been per- 
formed. | 7 . 


Il. Parse all the words in the above sentences. 


LESSON 9 
PREDICATE MODIFIERS 


“The ship sails gracefully.” Here gracefully tells the 
manner of sailing. 

“The ship sails immediately.’ Immediately tells 
the time of sailing. 

“The ship sails homeward.” What word tells the 
direction of sailing? | 

The words gracefully, immediately, and homeward 
are modifiers of the predicate. In the first sentence, 
sails gracefully is the complete predicate. In each of the 
three sentences, sails is the simple predicate or the 
predicate verb. | 


26 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


The predicate with its modifiers is called the complete 
predicate. | 

The predicate without its modifiers is called the predicate 
verb. : 


ANALYSIS. The parrots were talking noisily. 


This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is 
the parrots; the complete predicate is were talking noisily. 
The subject substantive is the noun parrots; the predicate 
verb is were talking. The subject substantive is modified by 
the adjective the; the predicate verb is modified by noisily. 


WritrEN Parstnc. Parse the nouns, adjectives, and 
verbs in this sentence, using the form given in Lesson 8. 


Diacramine. Write noisily on a slanting line drawn 
from the line upon which the predicate is written. 


EXERCISE 9 


Analyze and diagram. the following sentences. Parse the 
nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the even-numbered sentences. 


1. A great victory was finally won. 
2. These questions may be settled peaceably. 
3. The tired child slept soundly. 
4. Times will surely change. . 
5. A blue butterfly fluttered lightly down. 
6. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 
7. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 
8. The precious morning hours should not, be idly wasted. 
_ 9. You will undoubtedly be cordially welcomed. 
10. A furious wintry gale has been blowing. 7 


OTHER MODLFIERS 27 


LESSON 10 


OTHER MODIFIERS 


Modifiers are themselves often modified, as in the 
following sentence, where more modifies plainly, and 
still modifies more. 


Diagram. The whole class must speak still more plainly. 


The modifier more is written on a line parallel with plainly, 
with a short connecting line. Sézll, in a similar way, is writ- 
ten on a line parallel with more, which it modifies. 

Awatysts. This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is the whole class; the complete predicate is must 
speak still more plainly. The subject substantive is the 
noun class; the predicate verb is must speak. Class is modi- 
fied by the adjectives the and whole. Must speak is modified 
by the words still more plainly. Plainly is modified by more, 
and more is modified by sézll. 

Ve 


EXERCISE 10 Y 


Analyze or diagram the following sentences: 


1. The graceful aéroplane mounted still higher. 
2. Our touring car has traveled very far, 


28 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


. The boy scouts are marching daily. 
. Perhaps he will return. 

. We laughed very heartily. 

. A torn jacket is soon mended. 

. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. 


CON Hi ct B Oo 


. The visitor will soon be here. 
9. An absolutely innocent man was very cruelly perse- - 
cuted. 2 
10. A very enjoyable entertainment was provided. 
11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite 
unexpectedly. 
- 12. Why will people exaggerate so much? 


LESSON 11 


ADVERBS 


You have learned that the predicate may be qualitied 
or limited by modifiers, and that one modifier may 
limit another. Words used to limit the predicate of 
a sentence and those used to limit modifiers belong 
to one class, or one part of speech. They are called 
adverbs. | 

“She spoke too harshly.”’ What word tells how she 
spoke? What word tells how harshly? What do we 
eall the words too and harshly? . 

“Too much time has been wasted.” What word 
modifies much, by telling how much? What part of 
speech is much? Since too modifies much, which is 


ADVERBS | 29 


itself a modifier, too is an adverb. Adverbs, then, may 
modify adjectives. 

Why is éoo in the first sentence an adverb? Why is 
too in the second sentence an adverb? Why is harshly 
an adverb? 


‘An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, 
or an adverb. 


ORAL PARSING. She spoke too harshly. 


She is a pronoun because it is used instead of a noun. 
Spoke is a verb because it asserts. Too is an adverb because 
it modifies an adverb. Harshly is an adverb because it 
modifies the verb spoke. 


Written Parsinc. Use the model in Lesson 8, adding 
a column for adverbs. 


EXERCISE i1 


Analyze or diagram the following sentences. Parse the 
words. ye 
_ My bicycle tire was punctured yesterday. . 
_ The kite’ soared very high. 

_ The water gushed forth. 

_ The ninepins were knocked down. 

- You should listen more attentively. 

That class was especially interested to-day. 
. An especially interesting visitor called. 

An extravagantly high price was paid. 

_ That lady dresses extravagantly. 


SeLMmMONOaRrWN HE 


_ Softly the snow was falling. 


30 | 


put 


COND A Kh ww 


ok 
(SB) 


PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
LESSON 12 


ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 


EXERCISE 12 


Analyze or diagram the following sentences. Parse the 
words. 

. You must diagram neatly. 

. The ball teams were called together. 

. The teams are evenly matched. © 
. The reckless adventurer has returned. 

. John swims very rapidly. 


White, fleecy clouds are floating above. 


. Those severe laws have been repealed. 

. A republican government was established. 

. The holiday never comes too soon. 

. An unusually large crop had just been harvested. 


11. A season so extremely warm had never before been 
known. 
12. So brave a deed cannot be too warmly commended. 


Can be commended is the verb, and not is an adverb. 


To the Teacher. After the pupils understand the method of 
diagraming, the sentences in the exercises may be diagramed or 
not, at the discretion of the teacher. V 


LESSON 13 


A PHRASE INTRODUCED BY A PREPOSITION 


You have seen that several words may be grouped». 
together and used as one modifier. In the examples 


PHRASES 31 


given, the principal word is joined directly to the sub- 
ject substantive or to the predicate verb and is modified 
by another word. In this lesson, groups of words are 
used as modifiers; but these words are not united with 
one another, or with the word which the group modifies, 
as in the preceding lessons. | 

“De Soto marched) into Florida.” What words tell 
where De Soto marched? What is the principal word 
of the group which tells where he marched? 


—s, Groups of related words, like into Florida, are called 
phrases. They are diagramed in this way: 


De Soto marched 
eG nee 
= 
© Florida 


A phrase modifying the subject of a sentence is 
equivalent to an adjective and frequently may be 
changed into one. It is, therefore, called an adjec- 
tive phrase. ‘‘The colors of the sunset) are fad- 
ing.” What word may be used for the phrase of the 
sunset? ; : 

A phrase modifying the predicate verb 1s equivalent 
to an adverb and frequently may be changed into one. 
Such a phrase is called an adverbial phrase. “‘We shall 
go to that place.’”’ What word may be used for the 
phrase to that place? 


A phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but 
not expressing a thought. 


X 


39 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Dracram. The finest trout. in the lake are generally 
caught in the deepest water. 


trout are caught 


Notice that the diagram of the phrase is made up of 2. 
slanting line for the introductory and connecting word, and 
a horizontal line for the principal word. Under the prin- 
cipal word are placed the slanting lines for its modifiers. 
Here and elsewhere, all modifiers are joined to the principal 
words by slanting lines. 

ANALYSIS. This is a declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is the finest trout in the lake; the complete predicate 
is are generally caught in the deepest water. The subject 
substantive is the noun trout; the predicate verb is are 
caught. Trout is modified by the adjectives the and finest, 
and by the phrase in the lake. In introduces the phrase, 
: and lake is the principal word; the modifies lake. Are 
caught is modified by the adverb generally and by the phrase 
an the deepest water. In introduces the phrase, and water 
is the principal word; the adjectives the and deepest modily 
water. 


EXERCISE 13 


I. 1. Change the words in these phrases to adjectives or adverbs: 


The nations of America should be friendly. 
We walked toward home. | 

The cities of the West grew rapidly. 

You must diagram with care. 


PREPOSITIONS 30 


2. To each of the following words add one or more words 
‘0 complete a phrase. Use each phrase in @ sentence. 


to by. at in 
from with on : over 


Il. Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 


1. Parkman traveled among the Western Indians. 

9. The history of his trip tells about their interesting 
customs. | 

3/Large herds of buffaloes once roamed on the great 
plains. 

A. The Indians on horseback raced on the vast prairies. - 
_ The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. - 
_ The gloom of winter settled down on everything: 


“I aa ON 


A gentle breeze blows from the south. 
8 The top of the mountain 1s covered with snow. 
9. The second Continental Congress met at Phila- 
delphia. 
10. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 
11. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 
12. The wet grass sparkled in the sunlight. 


LESSON 14 


PREPOSITIONS 


“The boy jumped into the brook.” Notice that 
into is placed before a noun, and with it forms a phrase. 
It belongs to a class of words called prepositions. These 


34 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


words introduce phrases. The preposition shows the 
relation of one thing to another, as expressed: by the 
princioal word of the phrase (brook) and the word 
which the phrase modifies (jumped). The preposition 
serves also to connect these words. 

In the sentence ‘“‘The squirrel ran up a tree,’ what 
word.shows the relation between the act of running and 
the tree? ; 

Repeat the above sentence about the squirrel, and 
in each repetition substitute for wp one of these prep- 
ositions: over, through, to, under, from, round, behind, 
down, into. 

A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a 
prepositional phrase. 

The substantive following a preposition is called the 
object of the preposition. 


A preposition is a word that introduces a phrase and 
Shows the relation of its object to the word modified by 
the phrase. 


WRITTEN Parsinc. The subject of a sentence is generally 
placed before the predicate. 


Nouns | Pron. | Adjectives | Verbs Adverbs | Prepositions 


subject — The |is placed | generally of 
sentence a before 


predicate ine 


PREPOSITIONS 35 


OraL Parsine. The is an adjective because it modifies 
the noun subject; subject is a noun because it is the name of 
something; of is a preposition because it shows the relation 
between subject and sentence; a is an adjective because it 
modifies the noun sentence; sentence is a noun because it 1s 
the name of something. Is placed is a verb because it asserts ; 
generally is an adverb because it modifies the verb is.placed. ° 
Before is a preposition because it shows the relation between 
is placed and predicate; the is an adjective because it modifies 
the noun predicate; predicate is a noun because it is the name 
of something. | | 


EXERCISE 14 


According to the models above, parse the words wn these 
sentences: 
1. The frugal snail retreats to his small domicile. 
2. A smiling landscape lay before us. 
3. Columbus was born at Genoa. : 


4. The mouth of the Mississippi was discovered by La 
Salle. : 


5. All names of the Deity should begin with capital 
letters. 


6. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. 

7. The ground squirrel gayly chirps by his den. 

8. The first word of every sentence should begin with a 
capital letter. ; | 


9, The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of 
the United States by the blueness of the water. ” 


x : 

In the first phrase, shores is modified by another phrase, of the 
United States. Similarly, the principal word of the phrase by the 
blueness is modified by another phrase. 


36 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


10. In 1607 Hudson sailed within six hundred miles of 
the North Pole. 


The date i607 may be treated here as a 
noun, and six hundred as one adjective. 


S 

afternoons 
11. The library is open only on Satur- 

day afternoons. 


The adverb only modifies the whole phrase. 


12. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara 
River just below the falls. 


Just modifies the preposition below. 


13. In Mother Goose, the cow jumps clear over the moon. 


14. The long-lost explorers have been brought back from 
the Arctic regions to Canada. 


LESSON 15 
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE 


“Frank, Helen, and Elizabeth played tennis.” ‘The 
three words Frank, Helen, and Elizabeth have the same 
predicate—the same act being asserted of the boy and 
the two girls. Frank, Helen, and Elizabeth are connected 
by and—another and being understood between the 
first two names. Connected subjects having the same 
predicate form a compound subject. . 

“We rode, tramped, and swam almost every day 
last summer.’ The three predicates, rode, tramped, 
and swam, have the same subject——the three acts 
being asserted of the same group of people. Connected 
predicates having the same subject form a compound 
predicate. | 


COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 37 


A sentence may have both a compound subject and 
a compound predicate; as, 
Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. 


Two or more connected subjects having the same predi- 
cate form a compound subject. ; 

Two or more connected predicates having the same sub- — 
ject form a compound predicate. 


Diacram. Ceesar came, saw, and conquered. 
came - 


Caesar 


The short line following the subject represents the entire 
predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the horizontal 
lines that follow, each of which represents a part of the com- 
pound predicate. ‘These horizontal lines are united by a 
dotted line, which stands for the connecting words. ‘The 
x denotes that an and is understood. 

In a similar way, a compound subject is diagramed on 
horizontal lines connected with the main line. For an 
illustration, see the diagram of Sentence 8, Exercise 15. 


Orat Anatysis. This is a declarative sentence. Cesar 
is the subject; came, saw, and conquered form the compound 
predicate, and connects saw and conquered. 


EXERCISE 15 
Analyze these sentences: 
1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. 


2. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same 
house. 


38 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


3. Glass, china, and reputation are easily cracked and 
are never well mended. 


4. Time and tide wait for no man. 


5. Arizona and New Mexico were admitted to the Union 
in 1912. 


6. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back — 
of the eyeball and there spreads out. 


7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds ot 
hinges are found in the human body. 


8. Both man and horse were saved. 


The word both is used to 0am 
strengthen the real connective 
and. In a similar way, either 
strengthens or in the evther- 
or combination, and nether 
strengthens nor. 


9, The strange rumbling sound neither increased nor 
diminished. 
WW. Either John or Henry must go. 
‘11. The Norman kings of England 
came from a foreign land and of a for- 
elgn race. 


12. The mental, moral, and muscular 
powers are improved by use. 

For the method of diagraming sentence 12, see the diagram on 
page 37. The slanting lines of the modifiers mental, moral, and 


muscular are connected by dotted lines, upon which are placed the 
and and the symbol xX. 


13. Through the Suez Canal, scores of ships, British and 
German and French, pass yearly to India. 


14. A kind of gunpowder was used at an early period in 
China and in other parts of Asia. 


CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 39 


LESSON 16 
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 


Such words as and and or, used to connect words and 
phrases, belong to a class of words called conjunctions. 
They connect modifiers; as, 


A daring but foolish feat was performed. 


They connect phrases; as, 


We shall travel by railway and by automobile. 


They connect clauses—that is, expressions which, 
standing alone, would be sentences; as, 


Men may come and men may go. 


A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, 
or clauses. 


The interjection is the eighth and last part of speech. 
Interjections are mere exclamations, and are without 
grammatical relation to other words in the sentence. 
You will recognize them in the words expressing sud- 
den or strong feeling in these sentences: 


Hurrah! the field is won. 
Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 
Alas! what have they done? 


An interjection is a word used to express strong or sud- 
den feeling. a 


\ 


40 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
Wrrrren Parsinc. Hurrah! that cool and fearless fire- 
man has rushed into the house and up to the burning stairs. 
ee ————————— 
Nouns | Pron. | Adjec. | Adv.| Verbs | Prep.| Cong. Int. 


es a al ES, jaa a 


fireman that into and | Hurrah 
house cool has up | and 
rushed | to 
stairs fearless 
the 
the 
burning 


In a diagram, the interjection is written on’ a short line 
placed above the rest of the diagram and unconnected with it. 


EXERCISE 16 


Analyze these sentences and parse each word: 


i. Ah! I am surprised at the news. 
2. Pshaw! you have been fooled. 
3. Alas! all hope is fled. 
M. Ah! happy men, women, and children cheer joyfully | 
at the news. ‘ 
—5. Tush! tush! ’t will not appear. 
-6. The small but dauntless band of explorers were finally 
rescued from the ice-floe. 
+7. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 
+8. ‘The Revolutionary War began at Lexington and ended 
‘at Yorktown. . 


COMPLEMENTS; THE DIRECT OBJECT 41 


9. This courageous reformer fought against ignorance and 
prejudice, greed and oppression, treachery and falsehood. 
A0. Few honest, industrious men fail of success in life. 
11. Why! Where did you come from? 
12. The frozen but valuable territory of Alaska was pur- 
chased in 1867 by the United States. 
13. The wealth of gold, fish, and coal, in Alaska was soon 
discovered. 
14. Down the rivers, o’er the prairies, 
Came the warriors of the nations. 
-——~{5. I wind about, and in and out. 


LESSON 17 L 


io 


COMPLEMENTS; THE DIRECT OBJECT 


In saying ‘‘ Washington captured,” we do not fully 
express the act performed by Washington. If we adda 
noun and say, ‘‘Washington captured Cornwallis,” we — 
complete the predicate by naming that which receives 
the act. 

Whatever fills out, or completes, is a complement. 
Cornwallis, therefore, is the complement of the predi- 
cate. As Cornwallis completes the predicate by naming 
the object directly acted upon, we call it the object 
complement or the direct object. 

Connected objects that complete the same verb form 
a compound object complement; as, 


Washington captured Cornwailis and his army. 


The direct object completes the predicate and names that 
which receives the act. 


42 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
DiacraM. Liars should have good memories. 


Liars , should have , memories 


OraL Anazysts. Memories is the direct object; memories 
is modified by the adjective good. 


EXERCISE 17 


Analyze these sentences: 
1. Morse invented the telegraph. | 
2. Phrases form a large portion of almost every sentence: 
8. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 


4. By the beginning of the twentieth century, machinery 
had entered and revolutionized nearly every branch of manv- 
facturing. 
had entered 


machinery 


p branch . 
_x_ revolutionized 
The x denotes that a word ‘is understood; in this case, had. 


5. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. | 


revolves 


Notice that the perpendicular line before the direct object 
touches, but does not cut, the main line. 


6. Through vales of grass and meads of flowers, 
Our plows their furrows made. 


PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN } 43 


7. The history of the Trojan War rests on the authority of 
Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of an- 
tiquity. 

8 James and Jobn study and recite grammar and 
erithmetic. 


LESSON 18 
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND PREDICATE NOUN 


A complete predicate expresses something that is 
asserted. In the sentence ‘‘Soldiers march,” march is 
a complete predicate, for it expresses what is asserted. 

In the phrase soldiers marching, the word marching 
expresses an act, but it asserts nothing. In the sen- 
tence ‘Steel is hard,” zs asserts, but it does not express 
what is asserted. We do not wish to assert merely 
that steel is, or exists; we wish to assert of steel the 
quality described by the adjective hard. As hard ex- 
presses a quality, or attribute, of the subject, we may 
call it an attribute complement. 

“The maple leaves become.’ The verb become does 
not make a complete predicate; it does not fully ex- 
press the idea to be asserted. The idea may be com- 
pletely expressed by adding the adjective red, denoting 
the quality by which we wish to describe the leaves. 
‘The maple leaves become red.” Here the adjective 
red is the attribute complement. 

An adjective used as attribute complement is called 
a predicate adjective. | 

“Lizards are. reptiles.”” The noun repivles completes 
the predicate by naming the class to which lizards be- 
long. 


44 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


“Rolfe’s wife was Pocahontas.” Pocahontas com- 
pletes the predicate by presenting a second idea, which 
was asserts to be identical with the subject. 

A noun used as attribute complement is called a 
predicate noun. 

The attribute complement of a sentence completes the 
predicate and belongs to the subject. 


Diracram. Glass is brittle. 


Glass | as \ brittle 


The line standing for the attribute complement is—like 
the line for an object—a continuation of the predicate line; 
but notice that the line separating the incomplete predicate 
from the complement slants toward the subject, to show that 
the complement is an attribute of the subject. 


EXERCISE 18 
Analyze these sentences: 


1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

2. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile. 

3. Necessity is the mother of invention. 

4. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 


5. Commerce and industry are the best roines of a 
nation. ? 


“6 The ear is the ever open gateway of the soul, 
7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 
8 Snowflakes and hailstones are frozen raindrops. 
9g. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 


ANALYSIS AND PARSING  , 45 


10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 


11. The one serviceable, safe, certain quality in every 
study and in every pursuit is the quality of attention. 


12. The north wind is full of courage; and puts the 
stamina of endurance into a man. 


13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and ad- 
venture in it. 


14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism 
and grumbling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 


15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and 
suggestions of luxurious ease. 


LESSON 19 


~ ANALYSIS AND PARSING 


EXERCISE 19 


Analyze these sentences and parse the words: 

) 1. The ‘“Boston News-Letter” was the first newspaper 
in the United States. 

2. Bunyan wrote his famous book in prison. 


3. The first vice president of the United States was 
John Adams. 


4. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 
5. Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 


6. The first wireless message was sent across the English 
Channel in 1899. 


46 PART“ONE: GRAMMAR 


7. March came in as a lion and went out as a lamb. — 


Lion, like lamb, is a pred- 
icate noun. The diagram 
shows that as simply intro- 
‘duces lion. and lamb, —as 
being a conjunction. But 
some authorities classify as 
as a preposition, thus mak- 
ing as a lion a prepositional 
phrase modifying came, and 
as a lamb a prepositional phrase modifying went. 


8 Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 
9. He came a foe and returned a friend. 


10. The bark of the cork tree is used as stoppers for 
bottles. 

11. With time and patience, the mulberry becomes satin. | 

12. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem 
and gratitude. 

13. I am present. 

14. 1 am ‘here. 


The function, or work, of an adverb sometimes seems to fade 
into that of an adjective and is not easily distinguished from it. 
Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am, and like an adverb, 
to modify it. From their form and usual function, here in sentence 
14 is classed as an adverb, and present in sentence 13 is classed as 
an adjective. 


LESSON 20 


OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS 


‘He made the wall white.’’ Here made does not fully 
express the act performed upon the wall. We do not 
mean to say, ‘He made the white wall,” but “He 


OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS 47 


made-white (whitened) the wall.” White helps made to 
express the act, and at the same: time it denotes the 
quality attributed to the wall as the result of the act. 
_ “They made David king.”” Here made does not fully 

express the act. They did not make David, but made- 
king (crowned) David. King helps made to express 
the act, and at the same time denotes the office tu 
which the act raised David. | | 

A word that, like the adjective white or the noun 
king, helps to complete the predicate and belongs to 
the object is called an objective complement. It differs 
from an attribute complement by belonging, not to 
the subject, but to the object. : 


DIAGRAM. They made David king. 


They | made / king David 


EXERCISE 20 . 
Analyze or diagram these sentences: 


1. Some one has called the eye the window of the sou]. 


2. Longfellow once called the stars the forget-me-nots of 
the angels. ie 


3. Pharaoh made J oseph governor in Egypt. 
4. We should consider time as a sacred trust, 


' As is used simply to introduce an objective complement. 


o. Men called Washington “The Father of his Country.” 
6. The Indian warriors painted their faces many colors. 

7. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin, 

8. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 
9. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 


48 - PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
LESSON 21 


ANALYSIS AND PARSING 
6: eee Silver is mined in Alaska, Mexico, and the 
United States. 


Silver , is mined 


In this diagram the line representing the principal words 
of the phrase is continued as three separate lines. This 
shows that the phrase is compound. Alaska, Mexico, and 
United States are all introduced by the same preposition 7n, 
and have the same relation to is mined. 

In the above sentence the preposition in has a compound 


object. 
‘oe 
EXERCISE 21 


Analyze these sentences and parse. the words: 

1. The mills of England use much cotton from India. 

2. The aéroplane brought mail from France, Switzerland, 
and Italy. 

2 Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 

4. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 

5. The Panama Canal shortens the water route from New 
York to Manila. 

6. The life of the bee is short but busy. 


REVIEW 49 

7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different 
S1zes. 

8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 


9. The first. permanent English settlement in America 
was made at Jamestown in 1607. | 


10. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual 
snow. 


11. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 


12. The bamboo furnishes, to the natives of China, shade, 
food, houses, weapons, and clothing. — 


Notice that in sentence 8 were introduced is modified 

by the two phrases into England and from China. The 
whole phrase into England from China is a compound 
phrase. 
. Notice that in sentence 12 natives, the principal word 
of the phrase to the natives, is modified by another 
phrase, of China. The whole phrase to the natives of 
China is a complex phrase. 


LESSON 22 
REVIEW 


EXERCISE ,22 
Make sentences which contain the following: 


. A compound subject. 

. A compound predicate. 

. An attribute complement. 
. A direct object. 

. An objective complement. 
. A predicate noun. 


aS oP FO De 


50 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


7. A predicate adjective. 

g A noun used as objective complement. 

9, An adjective used as objective complement. 
10. A phrase modifying the subject. 
11. A phrase modifying the predicate. 
12. A preposition with a compound object. : 
13. An adverb modifying a phrase. (See Exercise 14, 
sentence 11.) 


LESSON 238 
PARTICIPLES 


A quality may be assumed as belonging to a thing (as, 
brittle glass), or that it may be asserted of it (as, Glass 
is brittle): An action, also, may be assumed as belong- 
ing to something (as, Peter turning), or it may be as- 
serted (as, Peter turned). 

In the expression ‘‘ Peter, turning, said,’ which word 
assumes an action, and which asserts an action? Think 
of other examples of an action asserted and an action 
assumed; as, horses gallop, horses galloping; corn 
grows, corn growing. ? 

This form of the verb which merely assumes the 
act, being, or state 1s called a participle. 

In the expression ‘Peter, turning, said,” the word 
turning modifies the noun Peter. It therefore has the 
function of an adjective. | 


A participle is a form of the verb which has also the na- 
ture of an adjective; it expresses the action or being as 
assumed. 


PARTICIPLES dl 


A phrase introduced by a participle is called a parti- 
cipial phrase.. 


When the words growing and-galloping are placed 
before the nouns (as, growing corn, galloping horses), 
they simply tell the kind of corn and the kind of horses, 
and are therefore adjectives. They are not classed as 
verbs. 

When the or some other adjective is placed before 
these words, and a preposition after them (as, the 
growing of the corn, the galloping of the horses), they 
are simply the names of actions, and are therefore 
nouns. ‘They are not classed as verbs. 


DracraMm. ‘Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 


Truth will rise 


In this diagram, the line standing for the principal word 
of the participial phrase 1s broken; one part slants, and the 
other is horizontal. This shows that the participle crushed 
is used like an adjective to modify truth, and yet retains 
the nature of a verb, expressing an action received by truth. 


Orat Anatysis. This is a declarative sentence. The 
complete subject is truth crushed to earth; the subject sub- 
stantive is truth. The complete predicate is will rise again; 
the predicate verb is will rise. ‘Truth is modified by the 
phrase crushed to earth. The participle crushed is modified 
by the prepositional phrase to earth; to is the preposition, 


52 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


and earth is its object. Will rise is modified by the adverb 

again. . 
Parsing. Crushed is the form of the verb called parti- 

ciple. The action expressed by it is merely assumed. 


EXERCISE 23 | 
Analyze and parse: 


1. A cobweb spread over a blossom protects it from 


the chill of the night. 
2. Your mother, beholding you, will shed tears of joy. 
3. The general,-riding to the front, led the attack. 
4. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was 
soon lost to sight. 
5. Wealth acquired. dishonestly will prove a curse. 
6. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 
7. The giant, perceiving | Hercules, roared in a voice 
resembling thunder. 7 
8. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. 
9. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 
10. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New 
- Netherlands. 3 
11. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked 
the Hessians stationed at Trenton. 


12. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman 
named John Rolfe. 


Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may 
consist of two or more words, as in sentence. 8 above. 

The participle, like the adjective, may modify a 
noun used as complement, as in sentence 9 above. 


L 


FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES 53 


LESSON 24 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES 


EXERCISE 24 


Analyze the numbered sentences and parse the words: 


The participle may be used as an attribute comple- 
ment. 


1. The boys came racing along. 


Racing here completes the predicate verb came, and belongs to 
the subject boys. The boys are tepresented as performing the act 
of coming and the accompanying act of racing. 


2. The city lies sleeping. 
3. They stood terrified. 

4. The student sat buried 

in thought. 

5. The cross-legged tailor 

kept stitching and snipping 

and piecing. 


The participle may be 
used as an objective comple- 
ment. 


6. He kept me waiting. 


Waiting completes kept and relates to the object me. Kepft- 
waiting expresses the complete act performed upon me. He kept- 
waiting me=He detained me. 


54 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


7. He found his burden growing heavy. 


The diagram representing the 
phrase growing heavy is drawn 
above the main line, on which 
it rests by means of a support. 
All that stands on this support 
is the objective complement. 
Notice that the little mark be- 
fore the support slants toward 
the direct object. The adjective heavy completes growing and 
belongs to burden, the object of found. « . 


8. He owned himself defeated. 


9. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding 
together in turbulent mobs. 


The participle may be used in an independent or 
absolute phrase; that is, a phrase consisting of a sub- 
stantive used independently with a participle. 


10. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell 
into the river. 


The diagram of the absolute phrase stands by itself. 

11. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of 
Dickens’s ‘‘constitutionals.” 

12. Breakfast finished, they started for the woods. 


Being is understood, making the absolute phrase, Breakfast being 
finished. 


LESSON 25 
iNFINITIVES 


There is another form of the verb which, like the 
participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence. for it 


INFINITIVES 59 


does not assert; as, He comes to msit us; To lie is a 
disgrace. As this form of the verb expresses the action 
or being in a general way, without limiting it directly 
to a subject, it is called an infinitive, which means 
without limit. 


An infinitive may be used in several ways. 

‘“T have a duty to perform.’’ What does the infinitive 
modify? What is its function? 

“He wishes to speak.’ What does the infinitive 
modify? What is its function? 

‘“To lie is base.’”’ Whatis base? ‘‘He tried to sing.” 
What did he try? To lie is a subject, and to sing is an 
object. 

The infinitive is used as an adjective, an abverb, and 
a noun. ‘ ia 


Infinitives may be completed by objects and com- 
plements; as, I tried to cross the stormy lake. The 
phrase introduced by the infinitive is called an infini- 
_ tive phrase. 

Norn. In the sentence ‘I tried fo cross the stormy lake,” the 
- infinitive phrase, being used as a noun, is called a substantive phrase. 

The infinitive is a form of the verb which names the 
action or being in a general way, without making an asser- 

° ¢ 
tion. , 


Do not place an adverb or any other word after to 
of the infinitive. It is better to say, ‘‘I try to learn 
the lesson thoroughly’”’; not ‘“‘I try to thoroughly learn 
the lesson.” ‘This incorrect form is sometimes called 
the split infinitive. 


56 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
Diacram. Noah hastened to build an ark. 


Noah , hastened 


3 


Anatysts. Hastened is modified by the infinitive to dud, 
having ark as its object; an modifies ark. : 

Parsinc. To build is an infinitive; it modifies the verb 
hastened. 


EXERCISE 25 


{. Make twelve sentences, each containing an infinite. 
Il. Analyze and parse: 

1. I come not here to talk. 

2. I hope to find it. | 

3. Books are spectacles to read nature. . 


4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to seek aid for the 
colonies. 


5. To-err is human. 


The diagram indicates that to 
merely introduces the word err.. 


This phrase subject cannot be written on the subject line because 
two lines are needed to express it properly. It is placed, therefore, 
above the subject line, upon which it rests by means of a support. 

A phrase used as a complement is diagramed in a similar way and 
rests on the complement line. 


6. The hands refuse to labor. 
7. To be silent is the best answer to calumny. 
8. The Puritans desired te obtain religious freedom. 


ence CS 


FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 57 


9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were un- 
able to conquer themselves. 


10. Columbus sailed from Spain to discover a new route 
to India. 


11. Bismarck, attempting to unite the German States, 
worked hard and brilliantly. 


LESSON 26 


FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 


EXERCISE 26 
_ Analyze and parse: 


The infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier. 


_ 1. Every individual has a place to. fill in this world. 


2. Every one should acquire the power to write a good 
letter. 


Fe } 
3. Once to every man and nation comes the moment te 
decide. | 


The infinitive may be used as an adverbial modifier. 


4. We will strive to please you. 

‘5. Lincoln never turned from his course to gain favor. 
6. This trait in Lincoln helped to make him great. 
7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 


The infinitive here modifies the adjective hard. To heal=to be 
healed. 


8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders 


58 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build 
another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 


9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. 
The infinitive here modifies the adverb enough. To eat=to be 


eaten. 


a 


The infinitive may be used as subject or as attribute 
complement. 


10. To be simple is to be great. 


To, in each of these phrases, shows no relation—it serves merely 
to introduce. The complements simple and great are adjectives 
used abstractly, having no noun to modify. 


11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

12. To climb steep hills requires slow pace at first. 
13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 

14. He seemed to be innocent. 


The infinitive phrase here has the function of an adjective. To 
be innocent=innocent. 


15. Suddenly the distant pate pes to shoot 
Sow. ard. ee 


"The infinitive may be used as the direct object. 
16. We should learn to govern ourselves. 
17. No one can sincerely try to help another without helps 


ing himself. 


The infinitive may be used after a preposition as the 
principal term of a phrase. 


FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 59 


18. The storm seemed about to overtake us. 


The preposition about in- 
troduces the phrase used as 
attribute complement. The 
principal term is the infini- 
tive phrase to overtake us. 


o* 


overtake 


19. The reapers were 
now about to bind the 
grain in sheaves. 


20. No way remains but to go on. 


But is here a preposition. 


LESSON 27 


FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES ; INFINITIVE CLAUSES 


In general, an infinitive, although a form ef the verb, 
has no subject; but there is a special case where it may 
have one; as, I believe him to be qualified. 

Him to be qualified is the object of believe. Him is. 
regarded as the subject of the infinitive to be. Such a 
construction as him to be qualified is called an infinitive 
clause, because it has a subject and a predicate. 


Instead of using the term infinitive clause, some authori- 
ties would say that the infinitive phrase to be qualified is the 
objective complement and him the direct object of believe. 


Notice that him, not he, is used as the subject of an 
infinitive. 


An infinitive clause may be used as the object of the 
preposition for. The entire clause, introduced by fer, 


60 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
may be the subject of the verb, an attribute comple- 
ment, a modifier, or the object of a prepositivn. 
Examputes. No course remained but for the general to 
surrender. (Object of the preposition but) 
For me to tell you that would be unfair. (Subject) 
EXERCISE 27 
Analyze these sentences: 


The infinitive may be used as an explanatory modifier 
or appositive. 


1. It is well to be attentive. 


ee 
o) 


The infinitive phrase to be attentive 
explains the subject it. Read the sen- 
tence without zt, and you will see the 
real nature of the phrase. 


attentive 


well 


The use of zt as a substitute for the real subject is 
a common idiom! of our language. It allows the 
real subject to follow the verb. The word 2, used in 
this way, is called an expletive, which means a word 
added to fill a vacancy. There is an expletive in the 


nee 


writing about it. 
3. It is natural to: man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 
The infinitive may be used independently. 
In the diagram, the independent element must stand by itself, 
4. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 


1 Expressions which are peculiar to any language we call its idioms. 
The English language has a great many idioms, or idiomatic expres- 
sions. Such expressions cannot be translated word for word into an- 
other language, and many of them cannot be satisfactorily analyzed. 

Exampies. It is they. We had better go. How do you do? 


PARTICIPLES ‘AND INFINITIVES 61 


5. To be brief, the Indian tribes were Fea driven 
across the Mississippi. 
The infinitive clause may be used as direct object. 


6. We believed him to be our friend. 


Sriend 


belaeved 


7. He made me wait. 
Wait is an infinitive without to. 
The verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and 
see are followed by the infinitive without to. 
8. He declared the accusationto_be false, 
9. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. 
10. I saw the leaves stir. oe 
The infinitive clause may be the object of the preposi- 
tion for. 


il. For man to forgive an injury is noble. 


Diagram for like about in sentence 18, page 09 (but resting on 
- the subject line), and the infinitive clause as in sentence 6 above, 


12. It is hard for an empty bag to stand reetane 

The infinitive clause is an appositive of ¢f. 

13. My plan is for you to visit us. 

The infinitive clause is an attribute complement. 
LESSON 28 


REVIEW OF PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES 
EXERCISE 28 


Make sentences giving examples of the following: 
1. A participle. 


62 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


2. A participle used as attribute complement. 
3. A participle used as objective complement. 


4. A noun and a participle used absolutely, or inde- 
pendently. 


5. An infinitive. 

6. An infinitive used as subject of a verb. 

7. An infinitive used as adjective modifier. 

8. An infinitive used as adverbial modifier. 

9. An infinitive used as attribute complement. 
10. An infinitive used as direct object. 
11. An infinitive used as object of a preposition. 
12. An infinitive used as appositive modifier. 
13. An infinitive used independently. 

‘ 14. An infinitive clause used as direct object. 

15. An infinitive clause used as object of for. 


LESSON 29 
GERUNDS 


The gerund, or verbal noun, is a form of the verb end- 
ing in ing, which has also the nature of a noun. 


Exampies. You will find difficulty in solving this problem. 
Reading good books is profitable. 
Just being happy is good work and true. 


When the word denoting the action no longer retains — 
any of its verbal nature, it is a mere noun. 


Examptes. Walking and riding are healthful exercises. 
In Paris he studied painting. 
The cackling of geese saved Rome. 
Give your brains a racking. 


GERUNDS 63 
EXERCISE 29 


Analyze the numbered sentences and parse the words vn them: 


The gerund may be used as the principal word in a 
prepositional phrase. 


_ 1. We are harmed in doing harm. 


The line representing the gerund 


We, are harmed 
is broken; the first part represents 
the gerund as a, noun and the other 3S dorng yen 
as a verb. 


Anatysis. Are harmed is modified by the phrase in doing harm; 
in is a preposition and doing harm is its object. Harm is the object 
of the gerund doing. 

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without pie 
ducing any pain. 

3, Next to being a great poet is the power of under- 
standing one. 

4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, 
steadily, and vigorously. 

5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffermg without 
having suffered. 


‘Suffering here is a noun. 


The gerund may be the principal word in a phrase 


used as subject or as object. manageng 1 sailboat 


6. His managing the sail- 
boat so skillfully saved him 
from shipwreck. 


The diagram of the subject 
phrase is drawn above the sub- 
ject line. All that rests on the 
subject lme is regarded as the 
subject. 


64 /PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 
8. Hunting the Arctic bear is an exciting and dangerous 
sport. | | 
9. Catching the dog was not an easy matter. - 
10. Repairing steeples is a dangerous profession. 


The form of the verb ending in ing may be a mere 
noun. 


11. The crowing of the rooster announced the dawn. 
12. There was a rustling that seemed like a bustling 
of merry crowds. 
13. Swimming and skating are my favorite sports. 
14. All the little boys and girls, 
With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls, 
Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after 
The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. 


In sentence 14, what words ending in ing are nouns, and what 
words are not? 


LESSON 30:7. . ' 
3 e 
NOUNS AS MODIFIERS; A; POSITIVES 


In the sentence ‘‘The robin’s eggs are blue,” what 
word names the things owned or possessed? What 
word names the owner or possessor? : 

The noun robin’s is here used as a. modifier. You 
see that it is the word robin with an apostrophe (’) and 
the letter s added to denote possession. 


In the sentence “Longfellow, the poet, is loved by 
the children,” the noun poel modifies the subject 
Longfellow, by explaining what Longfellow 1s meant. _ 


NOUN MODIFIERS; APPOSITIVES 65 


Both words name the same person. The word poet 
is in apposition with Longfellow; it is called an ap- 
positive. 


_A word in apposition with another word explains it by 
referring to the same thing. 


An appositive is usually set off from the rest of the 
sentence by the comma. 


Dracram. The good ship Trifler was wrecked off Cape 
Cod. 


ship (Trifler) ile wrecked 


Trifler is written on the subject line because Trifler and 
ship both name the same thing, but Trifler is inclosed within 
marks of parenthesis to show that ship is the proper subject. 


Anatysis. Ship is modified by the article the and the 
adjective good, and by the noun Trifler in apposition with 
ship. 


EXERCISE 30 
Analyze these sentences: 
1. The South Pole was discovered by a SN or rerian 
explorer, Amundsen. 
2. The planet Jupiter has nine moons. 
3. Peter’s wife’s mother lay sick of a fever. 
4, An ostrich outruns an Arab’s horse. 


5. Mary, the unfortunate queen of Scots, was imprisoned 
by her cousin, Elizabeth. 


6. Milton, the great English ss became blind. 


66 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
7. David swore eternal friendship with Jonathan, Saul’s 
son. 


8. Alexander’s horse, Bucephalus, is one of the famous 
horses in history. 


9. Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, was sold by his brethren 
to the Ishmaelites. 


1¢. Alexander the Great was educated under the cele- 
brated philosopher, Aristotle. 


Alexander the Great is treated as one name. 


11. Friends tie their purses with a spider’s thread. 


12. Robin Hood lived and hunted in Sherwood, a famous 
forest of Old England. 


13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. 
14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword. 


LESSON 31 
WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY 


A sentence sometimes contains words and phrases 
which have no a connection with the rest of 
the sentence. 


1. ‘Good name in man or woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls.” 


Dear my lord serves only to arrest attention, oe: is | 
ee by address. 


“Clever dog! he found his way home across a whole 
shine Clever dog is independent by exclamation. 

3. “Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me.” 

Rod and staff simply call attention to the objects before 


INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES 67 


anything is said of them and are independent by 
pleonasm — a construction that is out of place in ordi- 
nary speech. 


The word pleonasm means more than. enough. In grammar, 
it indicates that more words are used than are needed to 
express the thought. 


4. “His master being absent, the business was neg- 
lected.” His master being absent logically modifies the 
verb was neglected, by assigning the cause, but the 
phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and 
is therefore independent. This is called the absolute 
phrase. 


An absolute vhrase consists of a substantive used inde- 
pendently with a modifying participle. 


5. ‘His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable.” 
Speaking is a participle without connection, and with 
the adverb generally forms an independent phrase. 

“To confess the truth, I was wrong.” The infinitive 
phrase is independent. 


6. The adverbs well, now, why, there are sometimes 
independent. | 


Exampues. Well, that is finished at last. 
Now, isn’t that a.good story? 
Why, it is already noon. 
There are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. 


7. Interjections are without grammatical connection, 
and hence are independent. 


68 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


8. Whatever is inclosed within marks of parenthesis 
is independent of the rest of the sentence; as, 


I staked my fame (and I had fame), my heart, my hope, 
my soul, upon this cast. 


EXERCISE 31 


Analyze these sentences: 


1. The most beautiful moths, children, were once but 
caterpillars. 


Children is independent by address. But=only, and is an adjec- 
tive modifying caterpillars. 


2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, 
and three-story intellects with skylights. 


| There is used idiomatically to throw the subject after the verb, 
the idea of place having faded out of the word. The word there 
used merely to introduce the sentence is an expletive. ‘To express 
place, another there may follow the verb; as, There is gold there. 
3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 
. Hope lost, all is lost. 
. The smith, a mighty man is he. 


. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 


4 

5 

6. Why, this is not revenge. 

7 

8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep market, a 


pool. | | 
9. To tell the truth, we never thought of stopping. 

10. Gentlemen of the jury, a man’s dog stands by him in 
prosperity and in poverty, in sickness and in health. 


11. Properly speaking, there can be no change in our 
affairs. 


NOUNS AS ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 69 


LESSON 32 
NOUNS AS ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 


“‘T gave her arose.” Here we have a construction 
that is sometimes called a double object. Rose, naming 
the thing acted upon, is called the direct object; and 
her, naming the person toward whom the act is directed, 
is called the indirect object. 

These indirect objects, which generally denote the 
person to or for whom something is done, are, in fact; 
equivalent to adverbial phrase modifiers. If we change 
the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; 
as, 


I gave her a rose; I gave a rose to her. 
I bought her a rose; I bought a rose for her. 
He asked me a question; He asked a question of me. 


When the indirect object precedes the direct object, 
po preposition is expressed or understood. 

Teach, tell, send, promise, permit, and lend are ex- 
amples of verbs that take indirect objects.. 


Besides these indirect objects, nouns denoting meas- 
ure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direc- 
tion, are often used adverbially, being equivalent to 
phrase modifiers. 


Exampues. We rode thirty miles an hour. 
It weighs one pound. 
It is worth a dollar a yard. 
They drove home that way. 
The gate is ten feet six inches high. : 


70 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


The idiom of the language does not often allow the use of 
a preposition before nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. 
In analysis, you need not supply one. 


Diagram. They awarded Roosevelt the Nobel Peace 
Prize several years ago. 


They , awarded , Nobel Peace Prize 


OraL Anatysts. Roosevelt and years are nouns used ad- 
verbially, modifying the predicate verb awarded. 


EXERCISE 32 


Analyze these sentences: 


1. We pay the President of the United States $75, 000 a 
year. 
2, 


3. Give me neither poverty nor es 
4. We went to New Haven the day of the races. 


5. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, ‘and ten 
eents a pound for his sugar. 


6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 


7. Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers | 
* forth on this continent a new nation. 

8. On the fatal field of Zutphen, September 22, 1586, 
his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a 
cup of cold_water. 


9. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. . 


REVIEW 71 


10. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes 
by means of gills. 

11. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 
12. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a 
single night. 


LESSON 33 


REVIEW 
EXERCISE 33 


Write sentences containing 


1. A participle. 
2. A gerund. 
3. A noun derived from a verb and ending in ing. 
4. A gerund used as the object of a preposition. 
5. A gerund used as subject. 
6. A noun showing possession ‘used ‘as _ adjective 
modifier. 
‘7. A noun modifying another noun by apposition. 
8. A noun independent by address. 
9. A participial phrase used independently. 
10. An infinitive phrase used independentiy. 
. 11. Now used independently. 
12. Now used as an adverb. | 
13. There used independently. 
14. There used as an adverb. 
15. A noun used as indirect object 
16. An absolute phrase. 


72 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


LESSON 34 
COMPLEX SENTENCES 


The sentences given for analysis in the preceding 
lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. 
They are called simple sentences. 

“4 wealthy man can do much good.” You can ex- 
pand the adjective wealthy into a phrase, and say, “A 
man of wealth can do much good.” You can also ex- 
pand it into an expression that asserts, and say, “A 
man who is wealthy can do much good.” The two parts 
of the sentence, who is wealthy and a man can do much 
good, containing each a subject and a predicate, we 
call clauses. 

The clause who is wealthy, which is used like an ad 
_ jective, we call a subordinate clause. The clause a man 
~can do much good, which makes good sense by itself, 

we call the principal clause. £ 

The whole sentence, composed of a principal and a 
subordinate clause, we call a complex sentence. 


Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called 
adjective clauses. 


A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and 
its predicate. 

A subordinate clause is one used as an adjective, an ad- 
verb, or a noun. 

A principal clause is one that is not dependent on another 
clause. 


COMPLEX SENTENCES ray ses 


A simple sentence is one that contains only one subject 
and one predicate, either or both of which may be com- 
pound. | 

A complex sentence is one composed of a principal clause 
and one or more subordinate clauses. 


Diagram. A man who speaks the truth stabs false- 
hood. 


The line standing for the ”@”_ stabs | falsehood - 
subject and predicate of the \7 \ 


principal clause is heavier \ 


than that of the subordinate who Ne speaks| truth 
clause. This pictures to you \e 
the relative importance of e 


the two clauses. 

The pronoun who is written on the subject line of the sub- 
ordinate clause. But this word performs the function of a 
conjunction also, and this function is expressed in the diagram 
by a dotted line. 

As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words 
they modify, we have indicated in this diagram that who 
speaks the truth is a modifier of man. 


Anatysts. This is a complex sentence because it consists 
of a principal and a subordinate clause. A man stabs false- 
hood is the principal clause; who speaks the truth is the 
subordinate clause. A man who speaks the truth is the com- 
plete subject of the sentence; the subject substantive is 
man. Man is modified by the adjective a and by the adjec- 
tive clause who speaks the truth. Stabs falsehood is the predi- 
cate of the sentence. Stabs is the verb. Falsehood is its 
direct object. Who is the subject of the subordinate clause; 
speaks the truth is the predicate; speaks is the verb, and truth 
is its direct obiect.. Truth is modified by the adjective the. 


74 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE 34 
Analyze and parse: 


1. He that runs may read. 

2. God helps them that help themselves. 

3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his 
name. 

4. That country is richest which nourishes the greatest 
number of happy human beings. 

5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole 
to pole. | 

6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be 
ruled by the rock. 

7. An aéroplane that has only one plane is called a 
monoplane. 

8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

§. The winter sports which the Norwegian most enjoys 
are skiing and tobogganing. 

10. The ski that is used by the Norwegian is a long, 
narrow piece of wood, curved at one end. 

11. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults and 
help us to mend them. 


LESSON 35 
* COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 
EXERCISE 35 


Analyze and yarse: 


1. We followed the path to which we came. 


ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 75 


9. Islands are the tops of mountains whose bases are in 
the bed of the ocean. 


We , followed , path 
ea mountains 
aa STAM Ca 

\ We 


_ 3. It was the same book to which I referred. 
4. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 
5. He did not know whom he could trust. 


The adjective clause modifies him understood, to which whom 
refers. Supply him. 


6. He took what was left. 


og 
He : took im: 
= Z 7. 


AY 
LY 


what nN 1 was left 

There are two ways of explaining the clause what was left. 
What is equivalent to that which. Substituting that which for what, 
we have that as the object of took, modified by the adjective clause, 
which was left. The diagram illustrates this construction. 

We may, however, regard the clause what was left as the object 
of took. To diagram this construction, we represent the clause 
awhat was left by a line that rests, by means of a support, on the 
object line. 


7. Whatever is begun in anger ends in shame. 
8. What men he had were true. 


Analyze as if arranged men what (that or whom) he had were 
true. Or what men he had may be taken as a clause, subject 
of were. 


76 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


9. A granary is a place where grain is stored. 
granary, 7s , place 
\ \2 ‘ee 
=, 


10. This is the house where Mark Twain was born. 

11. The lion sprang from where he had crouched. 

Supply the place before where. 

12. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are 
sown. 


13. Do you:know the Beye a we should not say ain’t? 


Se cece EE 
LESSON 36 


i 


COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 


A clause that does the work of an” adverb is an 
adverbial clause. 


Exampies. He arrived when the clock struck twelve. 
He stood where I am. 
This exercise is as profitable as zt is pleasant.’ 
I will buy the coat zf he will wear it. 


EXERCISE 36 


Analyze these sentences: 
The adverbial clause may express time. 


1. When water boils, steam is generated. 


ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 77 
When modifies both is generated 


steam , 1s generated 
and boils, denoting that the two aE eT ee 


acts take place at the same time. i 

It also connects water boils, as AS oo ALTE 
an ‘adverbial modifier, with 7s STN 
generated. 


The function of when may be better understood by expanding it. 
into two phrases, thus: Steam is generated at the time at which, 
water boils. At the time modifies 7s generated, at which modifies 
dotls, and which connects. 

The line representing when is made up of three parts to picture’ 
these three functions. 

2. While there is life, there’s hope. 
3. Water expands when it freezes. 


4. The diver puts on a complicated diving ie before 
he goes down into the water. : 


5. Many a year is in its grave 
Sinee I crossed this restless wave. 


6. The canoe reached the shelter of a cove, ie as the 
first stormy gust hit the lake. 


In a diagram of this sentence, the line representing as joins the 
two verbs and is made up of three parts. See the diagram of 
* gentence 1. Just modifies as. 


The adverbial clause may express place. 


7. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 


8. The Red Cross may be found wherever the tide of 
battle rages. 
9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 


The adverbial clause may express degree or result. 
10. Washington was as good as he was great. 


The adverbial clause as he was great modifies the first as, which 
is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the adverbial 


78 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


clause, answers the question, “Good to what extent or degree?” 
The second as modifies great and has the function of a conjunction, 
as well as of an adverb. | 
Transposing, and expanding as... as into two phrases, we have, 
Washington was good in the degree in which he was great. - 


‘1). The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. 


The words the .. . the are similar in function to as... as; He be- 
came humbler in that degree in which he became wiser. The is an 
adverb here. The first the is equivalent to by how much; the second 
the is equivalent to by so much and modifies humbler. 


¥12. Wisdom is better than rubies. 


Betier good beyond the degree, and than=in which. The sen- 
tence—Wisdom is good beyond the degree in which rubies are good. 
Are and good are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after than. 
and as. Than modifies good (understood) and connects the clause 
expressing degree with beiter. 


13. To be right is better than to be President. 


To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be Presix 
dent (would be good). 


14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. 


The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. 
The adverb so, modified by the adverbial clause that the mercury 
froze, answers the question, ‘Cold to what degree?”’ The sentence 
—It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze. That, as 
you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses. 


5. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. 
It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require). 


16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than 
scolding for it. | ; 


17. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes 
him. 7 


ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 79 


18. To preach is easier than to practice. 
19) The oftener he visits us, the better we like him. 


“LESSON 37 
COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 


EXERCISE 37 


Analyze these sentences: 
The adverbial clause may express manner. 
1. He died as he lived. 


He died in the manner in which he lived. For diagram, see sen- 
cence 1 in Exercise 36. 


2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 
3 Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. 


The subject of the first do is you understood. Them do is an 
- infinitive clause with the fo of the infinitive omitted. See page 61. 


4. Just as the twig is bent, the tree is inclined. 


5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our 
thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the 
shore. 


The adverbial clause may express real cause. 
6. The sea is rough because it stormed last night. | 


In diagraming, because, a mere conjunction, stands on a line 
wholly dotted. - 


7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of 
talking. 


80 - PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through 
them the blood throws off impurities. 


9. Since the breath contains poisonous gas, wise people 
ventilate their bedrooms. 


10. Gasoline is a valuable fuel because so many engines 
are now run by its power. 


11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is 
made from its flour. 


The adverbial clause may express evidence or proof. 


12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for He 
overthrew them in the wilderness. | 2 | 


13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, 
since Raleigh found them here. 

14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this 
morning. y 
The adverbial clause may express condition. 


15. If the air is quickly compressed, it becomes heated. 


16. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in 
verse, always use prose. 

17. If ever you saw ’a crow with a kingbird after him, 
you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 


18. The earth, were it stopped in its orbit to-morrow, 
would rush toward the sun. 


The position of the subject and the verb renders the 1f unneces- 
sary. This omission of 7f is a common idiom. 


19. Should the sun’s rays be shut off from the earth, all 
life would die. 


ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 81 


LESSON 38 


COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 
EXERCISE 38 


I. Analyze these sentences: 
The adverbial clause may express purpose. 


| 1, Language was given us that we might say pleasant 
things to each other. ; 


That, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction. 


2. In several large cities, underground and overhead 
railways have been built in order that street traffic may 
not become congested. 


The phrases in order that, so that=that. 


8 The canal across the Isthmus of Panama was dug so 
that vessels need not sail around Cape Horn to reach the 
Pacific Ocean. 


4. In sending packages by parcel post, it is well to have 
them insured so that they may receive special care. 
The adverbial clause may express concession. 
5. Although the brain is only one fortieth of the body, 
about one sixth of the blood is sent to it. 


6. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of 
fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, we do not 
feel its weight. 


7. Although potatoes grow underground, yet they are a 
part of the plant’s stalk. 


82 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


8. If the forest ranger cannot prevent all forest fires, he 
ean often check and extinguish them. ‘ 


If here=though. 


9. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, 
they are not sufficient to make up the loss caused by evapo- 
ration. | 


Il. Select the adverbial clauses in the following sentences and 
tell what each expresses: 


7 {. Birds will desert their nests if they are much dis- 
turbed. 

2. Where law ends, tyranny begins. | 

3. In large cities, snow is a great nuisance, for it costs 
many thousands of dollars to remove it from the streets. 

4. Although the snow does much damage, we would be 
badly off without it. 

5. It is valuable to man because it protects plants and 
crops, and prevents them from being winter-killed. 


6. The train was so late that we missed our connection 


at the junction. ay 


4 


LESSON 39 v 
COMPLEX SENTENCES; SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 


Wisdom is better than rubies= To be wise is better 
than rubies— That men should be wise is better than 
rubies. The subordinate clause that men should be wise 
is equivalent to a noun and is the subject of Gane 


“Few people always remember that haste makes 
waste.” The subordinate clause introduced by that 
is equivalent to a noun, and is the object of remember. . 


SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 83 


“A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many 
borrowed words.” The clause introduced by that is 
equivalent to a noun, and is an attribute complement 
relating to peculiarity. 

“The fact that the earth is a sphere was not widely 
believed in the time of Columbus.’”’ The clause intro- 
duced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is explana- 
tory of fact; it is an appositive. 

“Much depends on when and where you read a book.” 
The clause when and where you read a book 1s equivalent 
to a noun, and is the principal term of a phrase intro- 
duced by the preposition on. 

A clause that does the work of a noun is called a 
substantive clause. 


EXERCISE 39 
Analyze these sentences: 
The substantive clause may be used as a subject. 
1. That books are friends has been often proved. 
books ,are! . friends 


has been proved 


The clause that books are friends is used like a noun as the subject 
of has been proved. The conjunction that introduces the substantive 
clause. This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence in which the 
whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause. 

A substantive clause used as a complement is diagramed in a 
similar way and rests on the complement line. 


84 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


2. That the same word, spirit, is used for the soul of 
man and for a glass of gin is singular. 


3. “I forgot” is a threadbare excuse. 


4. Where Captain Kidd hid his treasure has never been 
discovered. 


The subject clause is here an indirect question. (See page 212 
for an explanation of indirect questions.) | 


5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 


6. “Where is Abel, thy brother?” smote the ears of 
the guilty Cain. 


7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is 4 
problem never solved by some. 


The substantive clause may be used as an object. 


8. James Watt showed that steam is powerful. 


The clause introduced by that is used like a noun as the direct 
object of showed. 


9. “Will you walk into my parlor?” 
Said a spider to a fly. 7 

10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 

11. It will ask of you, ‘‘What can you do?” 

12. The horseman stopped, and in a cheery voice asked 
what the trouble was. 

13. In “Life on the Mississippi,’ Mark Twain tells how 
he learned to be a steamboat pilot. 

14. He shows us that piloting was a very difficult but a 
very interesting business. 

15. The peacock struts about, saying, ‘What a fine 
- tail I havel’’ 


SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES | 85 


LESSON 40 
COMPLEX SENTENCES; SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 


EXERCISE 40 
Analyze these sentences: 


The substantive clause may be used as an attribute 
complement. 


1. One beauty of the English language is that it 1s so 
rich in words. 


2. Nelson’s message was, ‘England expects every man to 
do his duty.” 


3. The question before the committee is, “How shall 
ve raise the money?” 
4. Hamlet’s exclamation was, “What a piece of work is 
man!” : 

5. The saying concerning Achilles was that he was in- 
vulnerable in every part except the heel. 


The substantive clause may be used as an appositive. 


6. It has often been proved that books are friends. 


It is an expletive. See sentence 1, page 60, for a diagram and 
explanation of this construction. 


”. It is believed that sleep 1s caused by a diminution in 
the supply of blood to the brain. | 

8 The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is 
wonderful. | 


86 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


CA 


9. Shakespeare’s metaphor, ‘“‘Night’s candles are burnt 
out,” is one of the finest in literature. 
10. The advice in regard to conformity to local custom 


was in substance this: ‘‘When in Rome, do as the Ro- 
mans do.” 


11. This we know, that our future depends on our 
present. 


12. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay 
down his life for his friends. 


The substantive clause may be used as the principal 
term of a prepositional phrase. 


13. The sailor had no knowledge of where he was 
drifting. 


Where he was drifting is an indirect question used as the prin- 
cipal term of a prepositional phrase. 

In diagraming, the support for the substantive clause rests upon. 
the line for the object of the preposition of. 


14. There has been some dispute about who wrote — 


Shakespeare’s plays. 
15. Before Franklin’s experiment, people were not cer- 
tain that lightning is a form of electricity. 


By supposing of to stand before that, we may regard the substan- 
tive clause as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modi- 


fying the adjective certain. If we supply of the fact, the substantive 


clause becomes explanatory. 


16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us 
success and triumph. 

17. She was sure that the dog could find his way home 
from any place within fifty miles of the farm. 


A COMFLEX SENTENCES 87 


LESSON 41 


REVIEW OF COMPLEX AND SIMPLE SENTENCES 


EXERCISE 41 
Write: f 
1. Three simple sentences. . 
2. Three complex sentences. 
3. Two complex sentences containing adjective clauses. 


Write a complex sentence containing 


4. An adverbial clause of time. 

_ An adverbial clause of place. 

_ An adverbial clause of degree. 

. An adverbial clause of manner. 

. An adverbial clause of.condition, 


co CON & Ol 


. An adverbial clause of purpose. 
10. An adverbial clause of concession. 


“. LESSON 42 


~ 


REVIEW OF COMPLEX SENTENCES 


EXERCISE 42 


I. Write complex sentences containing 
1. A substantive clause used as subject. 
2. A substantive clause used as direct object. 
23 A substantive clause used as an appositive. 
4. A substantive clause used as the object of a prepo- 
sition. 


IL. Analyze each of the sentences you have written. 


3g PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


LESSON 43 


COMPOUND SENTENCES 


A compound sentence is one composed of two or more 
principal clauses. 


Each principal clause of a compound sentence states 
a fact independently of the other clause. | 


Dracram. The fire is out and the crowd has scattered. 


fire , ws . out The lines of these two clause 
eee diagrams are shaded alike to show 
e — tand: that the two clauses are of the 


crowd | Ll antec ete rank. The connecting line 


—— is not slanting, for one clause 1s 
% not a modifier of the other. As 
one entire clause is connected with 


the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predi- 
cate verbs, since they are the important words. 


OraL Anatysis. This is a compound sentence, because 
it is made up of two principal clauses. 


EXERCISE 43 
Analyze these sentences: 


Principal clauses in the same line of thought: 


1. The north wind doth blow, 
And we shall have snow. 
2. Leaves breathe for the roots, and the roots suck in 
food for the leaves. 
3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and 
some have greatness thrust upon them. 


COMPOUND SENTENCES 89 
Principal clauses expressing thoughts in contrast: 
4. Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are 
sweeter. 
5. Speech is great, but silence is ereater. 
6. Put not your trust in money, but put, your money 
in trust. 
- Principal clauses expressing thoughts in alternation: 
7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be ab- 
stinent in old age. 
8. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness ad- 
mirably. 
Principal clauses expressing thoughts one of which 
is an inference from the other. 


9. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it 
must be raining. 


10. He was proud; therefore he He eee proud 
had few friends. 


Hawes 


had friends 


In such constructions, and may be 
supplied, or the adverb may be regard- 
ed as the connective. The diagram il- 
lustrates therefore as connective. 


Principal clauses joined in the 
sentence without a conjunction. 
* 41. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the rein- 
deer is the camel of the desert of snow. 

12. Truth is the work of God; falsehoods are the work of 
man. ; ; 

13. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 


As it were is a principal clause used parenthetically and inde- 
pendently. As simply introduces it. 


90 rpAKL ONE: GRAMMAR 


14. Washington (so Lincoln once said) is the — 
name on earth. 


LESSON 44 - Paige 
COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES 


The clauses of complex and compound sentences 
may themselves be complex or compound clauses. 


Corn grows well and potatoes flourish, where alfalfa has 
been grown for several years. 


Corn , grows 


- 
\ finraved lean a 


potatoes », flowris 


s 
ay 
« 
i 


ee 
alfalfa Ke has been grown 


The diagram shows that the clause where alfalfa has 
been grown modifies both predicates of the principal clauses. 
‘Where modifies grows, flourish, and has been grown, as illus- 
trated by the short lines under the first two verbs and the 
line over has been grown. The function of where as con- 
nective is shown by the dotted lines. 


EXERCISE 44 . \ 


Analyze these sentences: 


1. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handie which fits 
them all. 


Ccue Still the wonder grew 
That one small head could carry all he knew. 


REVIEW OF SENTENCES 91 


3. Industry pays debts, while despair increases them. 

4. When a man becomes overheated by working, run- 
ning, rowing, or making furious speeches, six or seven mil- 
lions of perspiration tubes pour out their fluid, and the 
whole body is bathed and cooled. 

5. In Holland the stcrk is protected by law because it 
Pais the frogs and worms that injure the dikes. 

“6. No man is born into the world whose work is not 
born with him. 

7. I suppose he did not know; how the words shocked 
old Colonel Morgan, who was holding court. 

8. They called him “Plain-Buttons” because, while he 
always chose to wear a regulation army uniform, he was not 
_ permitted to wear the army button. 

9. There is a story that Nolan once met Burr, on one of 
our vessels, when a party of Americans came on board in 
the Mediterranean. 

10. Speak clearly if you speak at all; 
\1/ Carve every word before you let it fall. 


LESSON 45 


REVIEW OF SENTENCES 
EXERCISE 45 


Classify the following sentences according to their use and 
their form. Name the principal and the subordinate clauses 
in the complex sentences. 


1. The problem of securing an adequate income to the 
farmer’s family 3s partly a problem of securing an adequate 
supply of land and capital for them. 


92 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


2. What is so rare as a day in June” 


ww) 


. | am not bound to win, but I am bound to be true. 


4. Take your bow, O Hiawatha, 
Take your arrows, jasper-headed. 


5. Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
And fired the shot heard round the world. 


6. When Freedom from her mountain height 
Unfurled her staudard in the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there. 
7.Oh, what a tangled web we weave, 
F When first we practice to deceive. 
8. Alas! in winter dead and dark, 
Where can poor Robin go? 
9. Is life so dear or peace so sweet as,to be purchased 
at the price of chains and slavery? 


10. Come unto these yellow sands, 
; And then take hands. 

11. “You are old, Father William,” the young man said. 

12. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought 
forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, - 
and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created 
equal. 

‘13. The soldier stepped from the trenches into the fur- 
row; horses that had charged federal guns marched before 
the plow; fields that ran red with human blood in April 
were green with harvest in ‘June; ; and there was little bit- 
terness in all this. 


14. Far to the south, Mr. President, lies the fairest and 
richest domain of this earth. 


REVIEW OF ANALYSIS 93 


LESSON 46 


REVIEW OF SENTENCES 


EXERCISE 46 
Write or give orally: 


1. A simple sentence. 
2. A complex sentence. 
3. Four compound sentences. 


4. A compound sentence having two Poritipal fades 
one of which contains a subordinate clause. 


5. A compound sentence of two members, both of 
which contain subordinate clauses. 


6. One example of each of the four kinds of sentences 
classified with regard to use. ; 


7. Sentences illustrating the different uses of the sub- 


stantive clause. 


LESSON 47 
REVIEW OF ANALYSIS 


_ EXERCISE 47 
Analyze these sentences: 


1. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the 
sun. 


2. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of 


_ the night. 


3. We think in words; and when we lack fit words, we 
lack fit thoughts. 


oF. 


y4 FART ONE: GRAMMAR 


4. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, 
To soften rocks, or bend a knotted oak. 


5. Reason’s whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
«Lie in three words—health, peace, and competence. 


6. A wind came up out of the sea 
And said, ‘‘O mists, make room for me.” 


7. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discon- 
tent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul | 
in perpetual calm. 


8. And when you stick on conversation’s burrs, 
Don’t strew your pathway with those dreadful wur’s. 


9. Kind hearts are more than coronets; 
And simple faith than Norman blood. 


10. There is a class of people among us so conservative 
that they are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off 
the cobwebs. 


“41. The nearest star is so far from the earth that its 
light takes more than four years to come to the earth. 


12. Rip Van Winkle, however, was one of those happy 
mortals, of well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easily. 
13. Van Twiller’s full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have 
taken toll of everything that went into his mouth, were curi- 
ously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a spitzen- 
burg apple. 
14. He prayeth best who loveth best 
All things both great and small; 
For the dear God, who loveth us, 
He made and loveth all. 


THE PARTS OF SPEECH 


LESSON 48 
CLASSES OF NOUNS 


You have learned that nouns are names; as, girl, 
Gertrude. The name girl is held in common by all 

girls, and hence does not distinguish one girl from 
~ another. The name Gerirude is not thus held m com- 
mon; it distinguishes one girl from other girls. A 
name which belongs in common to all things of a class 
we call a common noun. Any particular name of an 
individual, distinguishing this individual from others 
of its class, we call a proper noun. 

Such a word as wheat, music, or architecture does not 
distinguish one thing from another of its class. There 
is only one thing in the class denoted by each—that is, 
each thing forms a class by itself; so we call these words 
common nouns. ; 


A noun is a word used as the name of anything. 

A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of 
a class. 

A proper noun is the individual name of a particular 
person, place, or thing. | 


There are two special classes of commen nouns, 
collective and abstract. 


96 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


A collective noun is the name of a number of things taken 
together; as, army, flock, mob, Jury. | 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, an Bint a : 
being, or a state; as, whiteness, beauty, wisdom, sing- 
ing, existence, sleep. 


A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when 
the individuals in the collection are thought of; but 
when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb 
should be singular. 


ExamMpues. A number of our tourists. were inclined to. 
turn back. 
The number present was not ascertained. 


EXERCISE 48 


Point out the nouns and tell the class to which each belongs: 


1. We are such stuff as dreams are made on, 
And our little life is rounded with a sleep. 
2. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 
But in ourselves, that we are underlings. 


3. Like the swell of some sweet tune, 
Morning rises into noon, 
May glides onward into June. 


4. The appearance of the island, when I came on deck 
the next morning, was altogether changed. 


5. London is the clearing-house of the world. 


6. A thing of beauty is a joy forever; 
Its loveliness increases; it will never 
Pass into nothingness; but still will keep 
A bower quiet for us, and a sleep 
Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing. . 


4 


CLASSES OF PRONOUNS Segoe 


EXERCISE 49 


I. Name and classify the pronouns in these sentences: 


1. Lift up your heads, O ye gates, 
2. I did send to you for gold to pay my legions, 
Which you denied me. . | 
3. I denied you not; he was but a fool that brought my 
answer. back. 
4. Then none was for the party, 
And all were for the state. 
“4 5. “Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” 
Alice asked. 
6. ‘We called him oeNe because he taught us,’ 
said the Mock Turtle angrily; ‘“‘really you are very dull!” 
7. A child asked, ‘What is the grass?” fetching it to 
me with full hands. 
8 Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? 
If any, speak, for-him have I offended. 
9: In ourselves, 
In our own honest hearts and chainless hands, 
Will be our safeguard. 
10. That which is everybody’s business | is nobody’ S 
pusiness. ¥ 
fh. That is but the owl and owlet, 
Talking in their native language, 
Talking, scolding at each other. 
12. Teach me to feel another’s woe. 
13. I saw the different things you did, 
But always you yourself you hid. 
14. Such a‘life is very fine, 
But it’s not so nice as mine. 


100 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Il. Insert the proper pronoun in the blanks and tell the 
antecedent of the pronoun that you have used. 


1. The poor woman could not conceal —— grief. 

2. If Tom has borrowed my racket, I wish that — 
would return 

3. The school expects every member of the team to do 
the best that can. 

4. We expect all students to do best. 

5. The man dined with us yesterday has been to 
South America. 

6. This goal, 
for us. 

7. But the seafowl is gone to 

The beast is laid down in 


was made by Harrison, won the game 


nest, 
lair. 


is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 


9. O Solitude, where are the charms 
sages have seen in —— face? 


10. If you wish me to follow you, I will do 


LESSON 50 
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: NUMBER 


Number is that modification of a noun or a pronoun 
which denotes one thing or more than one. 

The singular number denotes a single thing. 

The plural number denotes two or more things. 


EXERCISE 50 


1. The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding 
s or es to the singular. 7 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: NUMBER 101 


Write the plural of the following nouns: 


canoe debt tree stomach flock 
bouquet wing meadow mouth wren 
island roof pasture crow chair 


2. When the singular ‘N. in the sound of s, x, z, sh, 
or ch, it is not agreeable to add the sound of s, so es is 
added and makes another syllable. 


Write the plural of the following nouns: 


box fox branch bench witch 
birch dish waltz dress brush 


3. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
form the plural by adding es without ace tee the 
number of syllables. 


Write the plural of the following nouns: 
hero negro. echo mosquito 


cargo potato volcano motto 


_ 4, Common nouns ending in y preceded by a con- 
sonant form the plural by changing y to i and adding 
es without increasing the number of syllables. 


Write the plural of the following nouns: 
family lady country fairy penny 
bakery city jury reply sky 


5. Some nouns ending in f and fe form the plural 
by changing f or fe to ves without increasing the num- 
ber of syllables. 


102 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Write the plural of the following nouns: 


sheaf beef half self knife 
loaf thief elf wolf wife 
whart calf shelf lites ay leaf 


6. From the following list of nouns, select and write 
in separate columns (1) those that have no plural; (2) 
those that have no singular; (8) those that are alike 
in both numbers: 


tactics,. pride, shears, news, trousers, cider, victuals, 
measles, riches, flax, sheep, deer, flour, politics, alms, thanks, 
elk, scissors, swine, heathen, bellows. 


"2 The following nouns have irregular plurals—six 
changing the internal vowel, and two adding en. 


5 


Singular Plural Singular Plural 
man men foot feet 
woman ‘women Ox oxen 
child children tooth teeth 
mouse mice goose geese 


8. Learn the following plurals. Compare them with 
the other groups in this lesson. 


tomatoes stories monkeys _ solos leaves 
flies berries cuckoos — gulfs proofs 
chimneys _ lilies pianos chiefs scarfs 
valleys princesses vetoes beliefs benches 


9. Note the following plurals of titles: 


Mr. Hunt—Messrs. Hunt or the Messrs. Hunt. (Pré- 
nounced mes’ yerz.) 

Miss Clark—the Misses Clark, or the Miss Clarks. 

Mrs. Harman—the Mrs. Harmans. 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: GENDER 103 


10. When two or more words are united to make a 
single noun, we have a’compound noun; as, flagstaff. 

The plurals of compound nouns are generally formed 
by adding s to the principal word, but compounds end- 
ing in ful generally add s to the last syllable. 


EXAMPLES. sons-in-law - commanders-in-chief 
goose-quills hangers-on 
spoonfuls pailfuls 


11. In writing the plural of figures, letters, and other 
sharacters, we add the apostrophe and s. 
EXAMPLES. a's 2's ree 
Make your m’s and n’s more carefully. 
LESSON 51 Kes 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: GENDER 


Gender is that modification of a noun or a pronoun 
which denotes sex. 

The masculine gender denotes the male sex. 

The feminine gender denotes the female sex. 

The neuter gender denotes that a thing is neither 
male nor female. 

The feminine is distinguished from the masculine in 
these three ways: ; 

(1) By a difference in the ending of the nouns; as, 
lion, lioness. : 

(2) By different words in the compound names; as, 
mother-in-law, father-in-law. 
(3) By words wholly or radically different; as, uncle, 
aunt. 


“ 


104 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE 51 


Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with refer- 
ence to the three ways of distinguishing feminine from mascu- 
line: 


brother, sister czar, czarina host, hostess 

abbott, abbess sir, madam man-servant, maid- 

son, daughter boy, girl servant 

actor, actress drake, duck wizard, witch 

Francis, Frances Henry, Henrietta widower, widow 

bachelor, maid lord, lady heir, heiress 

monk, nun nephew, niece Augustus, Augusta 

gander, goose landlord, landlady administrator, 

bull, cow father, mother administratrix 

baron, baroness duke, duchess gentleman, 

earl, countess hero, herome. = =— gentlewoman 
LESSON 52 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: PERSON 


Person is that modification of a noun or a pronoun 
by which we denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or 
the one spoken of. A * 

The first person denotes the one speaking. 

The second person denotes the one spoken to. 

The third person denotes the one spgken of. , 

The form of the noun does not change to denote 
person. 


Examptes. I, John, saw these things. (First person) 
John, bring me the paper. (Second person) 
I saw John yesterday. (Third person) 

Things, paper, and yesterday are of the third person. 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: CASE 105 


EXERCISE 52 


Give the person, the number, and the gender of each of these 
nouns and pronouns: 


/1. Ye crags and peaks, V’m with you once again. 
2. Columbus is one of the marvels of history. 
3. The moon above the eastern wood 
Shone at its full. 
4. Listen, my children, and you shall hear i 
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 
5. I, the sole survivor, have written down the story. 
‘6. Wildly he shouted and loud: “John Alden! you 
have betrayed me!’’ 
‘7. Beneath her torn hat glowed the inte 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 


8. We dropped the seed o’er the hill and ys 
Beneath the sun of May. 


LESSON 53 
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: CASE 


Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun by 
which we denote its function in the sentence. 

The nominative case of a noun or a pronoun denotes its 
function as subject, attribute complement, or indepen- 
dent element. 

Nore. When a noun or.a pronoun is independent by address, 
it is called the nominative of address. It is also said to be in the 
vocative case, but this term is not widely used in English grammar. 

The noun or the pronoun in an absolute phrase is called a nomi- 
native absolute. 


- A noun or a pronoun independent by exclamation is called a 
nominative of exclamation. 


= 


106 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


The possessive case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
function as possessive modifier. 

The objective case of a noun or a pronoun denotes its 
function as direct object, objective complement, in- | 
direct object, or as principal’ word’ in a prepositional 
phrase. | 

Norn. The possessive case may be called the genitive ‘case. 

The objective case may be called the accusative, except in de- 


noting the function of an indirect object. The term datiwe case 
may be used for an indirect object. 


EXAMPLES. 


1. The doctor never so much as moved. (Nominative) 

. But what is the black spot, Captain? (Nominative) - 
_ Lizards are reptiles. (Nominative) — 3 
. The bear’s grease was made into hair oil. (Possessive) 

. The man killed the bear. (Objective) — | 

. The squirrel leaps among the boughs. (Objective) 


oO ore KW WN 


A noun that completes the predicate and belongs to 
the object is an objective complement and is in the 
objective case; as, They made Victoria queen. 

A noun that completes the predicate and belongs to 
the subject is a predicate noun and is in the same casé 
as the subject. In the sentence ‘‘ Lizards are reptiles,” 
the noun reptiles is in the nominative case. 

The subject of an infinitive clause is in the objec- 
tive case; as, It is necessary for us to go, They proved 
him to be a thief. 


In the sentence “I proved it to be him,” the infini- 
tive clause it to be him is the object of the verb proved. 
In this clause, the subject of the infinitive to be 


NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: CASH 107 


is it, and him is the attribute complement. The subject 
of an infinitive clause is in the objective case; therefore 
him is in the objective case to agree with the subject. 

In the sentence ‘‘I proved that it was he,” the 
clause it was he, introduced by that, is the object of the 
verb proved. It is the subject of the verb was, and is 
therefore in the nominative case; hence the attribute 
complement ke must be in the nominative—the same 
case as the subject to which he refers. 

In the sentence ‘‘Whom did you suppose it to be?” 
whom is the attribute complement of the infinitive to 
be, and consequently is in the objective case to agree 
with it, the subject of the infinitive. In “Who did you 
suppose it was?” who is nominative for the same reason 
that he is nominative in ‘‘I proved that it was he.” 


“He gave John a book; he bought me a book.” As 
_ here used, John and me are indirect objects in the | 
objective case. 7 

Nouns denoting medsure, quantity, weight, time, 
value, distance, or direction are used adverbially, being 
equivalent to phrase modifiers without prepositions, and 
are in the objective case. 


See page 70 for the diagraming of sentences containing nouns 
used adverbially. 


EXERCISE 53 _ 


Tell the case of each of the nouns and pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 


1. A sparkling morning followed a showery night, and all 
the little red and white and yellow flowers were lifting glaa 
faces to the sun as we took the high road to Bethlehem. 


108 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


2. As I was going to Banbury 
Upon a summer’s day, 
My dame had butter, eggs, and cheese. 
And I had corn and hay. 


3. Smith, smith, beat them fine, 
Can you shoe this horse of mine? 


4, A camel’s load never looks so large as a donkey’s, but 
no doubt he often finds it heavy, and he always looks dis- 
pleased with it. 
~ 5. Shun the habit of “putting off” as you would a tempta- 
tion to crime. 

6. Wherefore let him that thinketh he standeth take heed 
lest he fall. 


Take is an infinitive without to. 


7. Jealousy is cruel as the grave. 


LESSON 54 
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: PERSON AND CASE 


EXERCISE 54 


Remember that a substantive used as an appositive 
is in the same case as the word it explains, and that a 
substantive used independently is in the nominative 
case. 


I. Tell the person and the case of each noun and pronoun: ° 

1. Across the narrow beach we flit, 
One little sandpiper and I. 

2. We Americans do things in a hurry. 


3. O cuckoo! shall I call thee bird, 
Or but a wandering voice? 


DECLENSION OF NOUNS 109 


4. I, your friend, ask you to do this. 

5. You, Henry, are attentive. 

6. He read us the story of Joan of Arc, the maid of 
Orleans. ; 


AL 1. Write simple sentences, using each of these nouns in 
the three persons and in the three cases: 


George Washington Franklin Filipinos 
2. Write sentences containing a noun in the nominative case: 


Used as a complement. 
Used as an appositive. 
Used independently. 


\ 3. Write sentences containing a noun in the objectwe case: 


¥ Used to complete two predicate verbs. 
Used to complete a participle. 
Used to complete an infinitive. 
\ Used with a preposition to make a phrase. 
\ Used as an appositive. 


LESSON 55 
‘THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 


Declension is the arrangement of the case forms of 
nouns and pronouns in the singular and plural numbers. 


Declension of Nouns 
.“ 


Cdse Singular Plural —- Singular Plural 
Nominative lady ladies child children 
PossessivE _ lady’s ladies’ child’s children’s 
OBJECTIVE lady ladies child children 


110 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Declension of Personal Pronouns 


FIRST PERSON ’ 
Singular Plural 

Nom. I we 

Pos. my or mine our or ours | 

Ops. me us a 


SECOND PERSON 


Singular _ Plural 
Nom. you you . 
Pos. your or yours your or yours © 
OBs. you } you 


THIRD PERSON 


Singular Plural 
Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders 
Nom. he - she ae they 
Pos. his her or hers its their or theirs 
Oss. him her it them 


The old forms of the pronouns of the second person, which 
are now used chiefly in poetry and in solemn language, are as 
follows: ' 


Singular Plural 
Nom. thou ye or you 
Pos. thy or thine your or yours 
Oss. thee you 


Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used 
when the name of the thing possessed is omitted. ‘This. 
rose is yours’’ is equivalent to ‘‘This rose is your rose.” 


Remember that the apostrophe is never used in the ». 


POSSESSIVE FORMS 113 


I will take the gun which you do not want. 

I will take the gun that you do not want. 

The gun, which to me was useless, was to him a treasure. 
I hear what you are saying. 


| Ever and soever are added to who, which, and what to 

_ form the compound relative pronouns. These pronouns 
refer indefinitely to persons or things, as if the ante- 
cedent were any one, anything, or some other vague 
expression. 


Exampures. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth 
» doing well. 
Man can make himself whatsoever he will. 


EXERCISE 55 


I. Learn and recite all of the declensions given in Lesson 55. 


Il. How many different forms does each of the following 
. nouns and pronouns take when declined? 


1. man ar cir sao, A 7. who 9. James 
2.woman 4. boy 6. you 8. child 10. she 
: V 
LESSON 56 


POSSESSIVE FORMS 


The possessive case of nouns is formed in the singular 
by adding the apostrophe and the letter s (’s); in the 
plural, by adding the apostrophe (’) only. If the plural 

does not end in s, both the apostrophe and s are added. 


EXAMPLES. boy’s boys’ 
John’s men’s 
Charles’s 


114 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Possession may be expressed also by the preposition 
of and the objective case; as, the mosquito’s bill, or the 
bill of the mosquito. | 

The possessive sign (’s) is confined chiefly to the 
names of persons and animals. We do not say the 
chair’s legs, but the legs of the chatr. 

In using the possessive form, we must consider the 
sound of the words. ‘‘Henry’s uncle’s partner’s house”’ 
does not sound so well as ‘‘the house of the partner of 
Henry’s uncle.” 

To avoid the unpleasant sound of several s’s, we 
sometimes use only the apostrophe in the possessive 
singular; as, for conscience’ sake. 

When there are several possessive nouns which indi- — 
cate joint ownership, the possessive sign is added to the 
last noun only. If they indicate separate ownership, 
the sign is added to each. ‘‘ Butcher and Lang’s trans- 
lation of the Odyssey”? means the translation made by 
Butcher and Lang working together, “‘Pope’s and — 
Bryant’s translations of the Odyssey” refers to two 
translations, one by Pope and the other by Bryant. 

When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, 
the possessive sign is added to the last only; as, 
Wilitam the Conqueror’s fleet; Brown the plumber’s 
house. | 

A compound noun, or a group of words that make one 
name or title, forms the possessive by adding the sign 
to the last word; as, my sister-in-law’s automobile, 
the King of Spain’s crown. Sse 

In the sentence ‘“‘This news of father’s is exciting,” 
a double possessive form is used, the ’s and also the of 
phrase. 


FORMS OF THE PRONOUN 115 
EXERCISE 56 


I. Correct the following errors: 


. That house is our’s. Do you like it’s appearance? 

. I consulted Webster and Worcester’s dictionary. 

Did you notice the sky’s color yesterday evening? 

. I called at Tom’s the tinker’s. 

. We should purchase Shakespeare and Milton’s works. 
. Do you like Longfellows’ poems? 

. He sat upon the porch’s edge and told his story. 

7. We visited George’s father’s friend’s farm. 


OD om FP Wp 


wIl. Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural 
of these words, and place an appropriate noun after each pos- 
sessive: 


robin: OX child mosquito 
cuckoo — farmer hero bee 
‘shepherd fiance thief mouse 
friend man neighbor wolf 
- fox woman cow fairy 
LESSON 57 af 


FORMS OF THE PRONOUN 


Remember that J, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who 
are nominative forms and must not be used in the ob- 
jective case. 

It is incorrect to say, ‘‘ Who did you see?” Who is the 
nominative form and should not be used as the object 
of the verb did see. The sentence should read, ‘“‘ Whom 
did you see?” 


116 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


It is incorrect to say, ‘‘That is a secret between 
you and I,’’ because the objective form of the pronoun 
should be used. The correct form is, ‘‘That is a secret 
between you and me.” 


Remember that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and 
whom are objective forms and must not be used as 
nominatives. Her is a possessive form also. 

It is incorrect to say, ‘‘Him and me are good friends,” 
because the objective form of these pronouns is here 
used as subject of the verb. The sentence should 
read, ‘‘He and I are good friends.” 

The eight nominative forms and the seven obiecue 
forms given above are the only distinctive nominative 
and objective forms in the English language. You 
should become thoroughly familiar with them and form 
the habit of using them correctly. 


Remember that pronouns must agree with their ante- 
cedents in number, gender, and person. 

It is incorrect to say, ‘‘Every boy must read their 
own sentences.” What is the antecedent of their? Why 
is their the wrong word to use here? Give the correct 
form for the sentence. 


Remember that the relative pronoun who represents 
persons; which, animals and things; and that, persons, — 
’ animals, and things. 


Wrone. The boy which I met was very tired. 
Wrona. I own the dog who runs to meet me. 
Give the correct form for these two sentences. 


FORMS OF THE PRONOUN 117 


_ The possessive pronoun his is used when its ante- 

cedent is both masculine and feminine; as, Each pupil 
may bring his paper to the desk. It is not necessary 
to say ‘‘his or her paper.” 


EXERCISE 57 


I. Fill each blank with the correct form of the relative 
or personal pronoun, in each case giving the reason for 
your choice: 


1. Father and —— usually play checkers in the 
evening. 


and ——. 


2. The only ones at dinner were 


3. girls have formed a basket-ball team. 
4. Tf were , What would dol 
5; can answer this question? ean. 
6 


. The high school team has challenged boys to a 


game of football. 


7. Will you please indicate you wish to see? 


8. —— weighs more than 

9. has been elected president? 
10. do not know was nominated. 
11 do not know either; but it was not 
12. Every one must think for —— self. 
i. have asked and to visit 
14. did not ask 


shall we choose for this 


7 


15. The captain said, “ 
dangerous errand?” and the young soldier answered, ‘‘——. 


II. Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns an 
_ Exercise 30, according to the model on page 118. 


118 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Written Parsinc: Nouns. Blackmore’s novel, “Lorna 
Doone,”’ is a masterpiece of fiction. 


CLASSIFICATION MopIFICATIONS SYNTAX 


Nouns °\ Kind | Person | Number | Gender | Case 


Blackmore’s} Prop.}| 3d. | Sing. Mas, Pos. |Pos. mod. of 


novel 
novel Com. fe “ Neuter |Nom.} Subj. of is 
Lorna Doone! Prop.! “ 4d g ‘‘ | Appositive 
of novel 
masterpiece | Com. ie . : “« | Pred. noun 
with is 
fiction ve os ii “ - | Obj. | Prin. word 
after of 


The syntax of a word is its use in the sentence. 
LESSON 58 
ANALYSIS AND PARSING 


EXERCISE 58 


Analyze these sentences and parse the nouns and pronouns: 


1. The friendship between you and me I will not com- 
Pe to a chain. 


. In the best ode ks, great men give us their most precious 
eueme 


@. The right honorable gentleman is indebted to his 
memory for his jests and to his imagination for his facts. 


4. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 
5. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. 


~ 


cuandl OF VERBS . 119 


6. The music in my heart I bore 
~ Long after it was heard no more. 
7. We may live without friends, we may live without 
books, 
But civilized man cannot live without cooks. 
8. Adam Smith’s “Wealth of Nations” is one of the 
most important books that were ever written. 
9. I know not where His islands lift 
Their fronded palms in air; 
I only know I cannot drift 
Beyond His love and care. 
10. A great interpreter of life ought not himself to need 
interpretation. 
11. He serves his party best who serves his country best 


12. What men have done can still be done, 
And shall be done to-day. 


LESSON 59 
i ae ae OF VERBS 


“The man Ae ie makes no complete assertion and 
is not a sentence. . If we add the object fish, we com- 
plete the assertion and form a sentence—‘The man 
caught fish.’ The action expressed by caught passes 
over from the man to the fish. The word transitive 
means passing over. Hence all verbs which express 
an action that passes over from the doer to something 
which receives it are called transitive verbs. 

“‘Fish swim.” The verb swim does not require an 
object to complete the sentence. No action passes from 
a doer to a receiver. Verbs which express action that 


_ 


120 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


does not pass over to a receiver, and verbs which ex- 
press only being, are called intransitive verbs. 

A verb that is transitive in cne sentence may be in- 
transitive in another; as, 


Helen reads well. Helen reads the magazine. 


An intransitive verb may be a complete verb or a linking | 
verb. | . 

In the sentence “‘Fish swim,” the verb itself makes the 
complete predicate. Swim is therefore a complete verb. 

In the sentence “‘Ice feels cold,’’ a complement is needed 
to describe the subject. Feels therefore serves to link ice 
and cold, and is called a linking verb. 


When I say, ‘‘I open the door,” I express an action 
that is going on in present time. ‘‘I opened the door,” 
expresses an action that took place in past time. As 
the word tense means time, we call the form open the _ 
present tense of the verb, and opened the past tense. } 

In the sentence ‘‘The door, opened to the south, 
lets in the sunlight,” opened, expressing the action as 
assumed, is a participle; and as the action is completed, 
we call opened a past participle. 

Now notice that ed was added to open, the verb in 
the present tense, to form the past tense and the past 
participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their 
past participle by adding ed; we call them regular 
verbs. 


Notice the verbs in these sentences: 


{ see the man. 
I saw the man.. 
The man seen by me ran away. 


CLASSES OF VERBS 121 


I catch fish in the brook. 
I caught fish in the brook. 
The fish caught in the brook tasted good. 


The verbs see and catch do not form their past tense 
and past participle by adding ed to the present; we 
_ call them irregular verbs. . 


4K verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of 
being. | 3 

A transitive verb is one that requires an object. 

An intransitive verb is one that does not require an object. 

A regular verb is one that forms its past tense and past 
‘participle by adding ed to the present tense. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense 
and past participle by adding ed to the present tense. 


EXERCISE 59 
I. Write ten regular verbs; ten wrregular verbs. 


IL. Select the transitive and the intransitive verbs, the regular 
and the irregular verbs in these sentences: 


/1, The man broke the seals with great care. 

2. You can fancy the excitement into which that letter 
put me. 

3. We will sit here and talk. 

4, We ran on deck. | 

5. By good fortune, Hunter pulled a good oar. 

6. ‘Mr. Hands,” he said, ‘“‘here are two of us with a 
brace of pistols each.” 


7. The sun had just set; the sea breeze was rustling 
and tumbling in the woods, and ruffling the gray surface of 
the anchorage. ; 


122 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


8. Suddenly, with a loud huzza, a little cloud of 
pirates leaped from the woods on the north side and ran 
straight on to the stockade. 

9. “Gray,” resumed Mr. Smollett, ““I am leaving this 
ship, and I order you to follow your captain.” 

10. It was broad day when I awoke and found myself 
tossing at the southwest end of Treasure Island. 


LESSON 60 


VERBS: VOICE 


I fed the horse. 

The horse was fed by me. 

The first verb, fed, shows that the subject represents 
the actor; and the second form, was fed, shows that 
the subject names the thing acted upon. 

This change in the form and the use of the verb is 
called voice. The first form is called the active voice; 
and the second, the passive voice. 

The passive voice is a convenient form to use when 
we wish to assert an action without naming the actor. 
‘““Money ts coined’ is better than ‘Somebody coins 
money.” 

The active voice is usually a more forcible form of 
statement than the passive. 


- Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which 
‘shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing 
acted upon. 
The active voice shows that the subject names the actor. 
The passive voice shows that the subject names the thing 
acted upon. 


a 


VERBS : VOICE 123 


When a verb is changed from the active to the passive 
voice, that which was its object becomes its subject; 
as, I caught him; He was caught by me. When a verb 
has both a direct object and an objective complement, 
the objective complement becomes a predicate noun 
when the verb is made passive; as, They made David 
king; David was made king. In the latter sentence, 
king is a predicate noun. 

’ A verb having both a direct and an indirect object 
may retain the direct object in the passive form when 
the indirect object has become the subject; as, Sev- 
eral friends offered me assistance; I was offered as- 
sistance by several friends. When the direct object is 
retained in the passive voice, it is called the retained 
object. 

A verb may keep its indirect object in the passive 
voice; as, Assistance was offered me by several friends. 
In this case, me continues to be the indirect object; 
it is not called the retained object. 


EXERCISE 60 


Ti Change the voice of the verb without changing the mean- 
ing of the sentence, and make the other changes that are needed: 

1. The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers. | 

2. The storm drove the vessel against the rock. 

3. Our words should be carefully chosen. 


. 4. Exercise strengthens the muscles and keeps the 
body in good condition. 


5. True valor protects the feeble and huntbles the op- 
pressor. 


6. Mareoni invented the wireless telegraph. 


124 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


7. Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. 
8. Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. 
9. Who discovered the circulation of the blood? 


10. Mary Lyon believed that opportunities for higher 
education should be open to women. 


II. Name all the transitive verbs in Exercises 30 and 34 
and tell the voice of each. 


LESSON 61 
VERBS: MOOD AND TENSE 


(1) When I say, ‘‘James walks,” I assert the walking 
as a fact. 

(2) When I say, ‘‘If I were you, I would go to col- 
lege,” I assert the condition (that I am you) as one 
contrary to fact. If I say, “Long live the king!’ I ex- 
press a wish, not a fact. 

(3) When I say to James, ‘Walk faster,” I do not — 
assert that James actually does the act; I assert the > 
action as a command. 

The action or being expressed by the ven in these 
sentences is expressed in three different ways, or 
moods. The first way is called the indicative mood; 
the second, the subjunctive mood; the third, the im- 
perative mood. 


Nots. The word mode is sometimes used (instead of mood) 
to indicate these forms of the verb. 

The three forms of the verb called the infinitive, the 
participle, and the gerund, have already been studied, in 
Lessons 23-29. Review these lessons thoroughly. 


VERBS: MOOD AND TENSE 125 


(1) I walk. 

(2) I walked. 

(3) I shall walk. 

In each of these sentences, the manner of asserting 
the action is the same. “I walk” expresses the action 
as present. “‘I walked’ expresses the action as past. 
“T shall walk” expresses the action as future. 

As the word tense means time, the first form is called 
the present tense; the second, the past tense; and the 
third, the future tense. 

We have three other forms of the verb, expressing 
the action as completed in the present, the past, or 
the future. 

(1) I have walked a mile to-day. 

(2) I had walked a mile before luncheon. 

(3) I shall have walked three miles by noon to-morrow. 

The form have walked, expressing the action as com- 
pleted in the present, is called the present perfect tense. 

Lhe form had walked, expressing the action as com- 
pleted in the past, is called the past perfect tense. 

Lhe form shall have walked, expressing an action to 
be completed in the future, is called the future perfect 
tense. 


A group of words used as a single verb is sometimes called 
a verb phrase; as, shall have walked, must be done. 


I walk. He walks. 
Thou walkest. : They walk. 


In the second sentence, the verb walk was changed 
by adding est; and in the third, it was changed by 
adding s. These changes make the verb agree with the 


126 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


person of the subject. The verb ending in est agrees 
with the subject thou in the second person, and the 
verb ending in s agrees with he in the third person. 
In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third per- 
son; but as it is plural, the verb drops the s to agree 
with the plural they. | 

Verbs are said to agree in person and number with 
their subjects. The person and number forms may be 
found in Lessons 63 and 64. 


In the sentence ‘‘It is raining,” the subject 7 does 
not denote any definite person or thing. The verb 
is raining is therefore called an impersonal verb. 


Nots. The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms of the 
verb are sometimes called finite verbs. The word finite means 
limited. As these forms of the verb vary according to the time 
expressed, and the number and person of the subject, they are 
considered as limited or finite: 

The infinite (not finite) or unlimited forms of the verb are the 
infinitive, the gerund, and the participle. 


~ Mood is that modification of the verb which denotes 
the manner of asserting the action or being. 

The indicative mood asserts the action or being? as & 
fact. 

The subjunctive mood asserts the tees or being as & 
wish, a supposition, or a condition contrary to fact. 

The imperative mood asserts the action or being as a 
command or an entreaty. 
__The infinitive is a form of the verb which names the. 
action or being in a general way, without making an 
assertion... 


* 7 ? 
y 


VERBS: MOOD AND TENSE SD b+ 


The participle is a form of the verb which has also 
the nature of an adjective; it expresses the action or 
being as assumed. : | 

The present participle denotes action or being as 
continuing at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The past participle denotes action or being as past 
or completed at the time indicated by the predi- 
cate. 

The past perfect participle denotes action or being as 
completed at a time previous to that indicated by the 
predicate. | 

The gerund is a form of the verb ending in ing which 
has also the nature of a noun, 


Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses 
the time of the action or being. 

The present tense expresses action or being as oc- 
curring in present time. 

The past tense expresses action or being as occurring 
in past time. 

The future tense expresses action or being as yet to 
come. 
ord bays present perfect tense expresses action or being as 
completed at the present time. 

The past perfect tense expresses action or being as 
completed at some past time. 

The future perfect tense expresses action or being to 
be completed at some future time. 


The number and person of a verb are the modifications 
that show its agreement with the number and person 
of its-subject. 


128 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


- EXERCISE 61- 
Classify the verbs and tell the mood and tense of each: 
ff. 1. Sometimes I surprised shaggy old bulls grazing 
alone, or sleeping behind the ridges I ascended. 

2. They usually leaped up at my approach, stared 
stupidly at me through their tangled manes, and then 
galloped heavily away. 

98 As the Indian approached, we stopped to wait for him, 
when suddenly he vanished, sinking, as it were, into the earth. 

4. A tall Indian, gliding in, shook us by the hand, 
grunted his salutation, and sat down on the floor. 

5. As I descended the hill, the howling of wolves and 
the barking of foxes came up out of the dim woods. 

6. When we had galloped a mile or more, a large rab- 
bit, by ill luck, sprang up just under the feet of the mule. 

7. I was flung forcibly to the ground, and my rifle, 
falling close to my head, went off with a shock. | 

8 Just before reaching the fort, they had met a large 
party of Indians. 

9. Suddenly their bridles were violently seized, and 
they were ordered to dismount. : 

10. Instead of complying, they struck their horses with 
full force and broke away from the Indians. 


LESSON 62 © 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS 


Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the 


forms of the verb. 
Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of 


one number and person in all the moods and tenses. :_. 


+ 


CONJUGATION OF VERBS 129. 


The principal parts of a verb are the first person, 
singular number, of the present indicative, and of the 
past indicative, and the past participle. These are 
called principal parts because all the other forms of 
the verb are derived from them. 

Auxiliary verbs are those that help other verbs to 
make assertions. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, 
will, may, can, and must. 

May, can, will, shall, must, and their past forms are 
called modal auxiliaries. The verbs which follow them 
are really infinitives with to omitted. The tense forms 
of these modal auxiliaries are: 


PRESENT . Past 
may might 
can ; could 
will would 
shall should 
must 


_ In parsing and analysis, verb phrases made with these 
auxiliaries may be regarded as one verb. 

It is important to learn the principal parts of the 
common irregular verbs, as given below. 

Nore. These irregular verbs form their past tense and past 
participle by a change of the vowel; they are sometimes called 


strong verbs. Verbs that form their past tense by adding ed (or 
d or t) are called weak verbs. A; 


IRREGULAR VERBS 


Present Past Past Participle 
am was been 

begin began begun 

blow blew blown 


break broke broken 


130 


Present 


choose 
come 
do 
draw 
drink 
drive 
eat 
fall 

fly 
freeze 
go 

get 
give 
grow | 
know 


lie (to rest) 


ride 
ring 
rise 
run 
see 
sit 
shake 
sing 
slay 
speak 
steal 
swim 
take 
tear 
throw 
wear 
write 


PART ONE: 


Past 


chose 
came 
did 
drew 
drank 
drove 
ate 
fell 
flew 
froze 
went 
got 
gave 
grew 
knew 
lay 
rode 
rang 
rose 
ran 
saw 
sat 
shook 
sang 
slew 
spoke 
stole 
swam 
took 
tore 
threw 
wore 
wrote 


GRAMMAR 


Past Participle 


chosen 
come 
done 
drawn 
drunk 
driven 
eaten 
fallen 
flown 
frozen 
gone 
got or gotten 
given 
grown 
known 
lain 
ridden 
rung 
risen 
run 
seen 
sat 
shaken 
sung 
slain 
spoken 
stolen 
swum 
taken 
torn 
thrown 
work 
written. 


CONJUGATION OF VERBS 131 


The perfect: tense and the passive voice are formed by 
combining the proper form of the verb be with the past 
participle, not with the past tense. We say, ‘‘I have 
gone,” not ‘“‘T have went.” Carelessness in this matter 
is the source of many common errors in speech. Fre- 
quently the past participle is incorrectly used where the 
past tense is needed. We must be careful to use the 
proper form until its use becomes habitual. 


EXERCISE 62 


Fill the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs of which 
the present tense is given in parenthesis. Consult the list 
of principal parts on page 130. 


ve | him when he —— the work. (see, begin) 
2. Do you think that spring has 
3. We 
4,-Will has 
5. The birds will have 
( fly, freeze) 

6. Has the bell ——? Yes, it 
theme. (ring, write) 

7. John nearly all the way, but the man had 
before John arrived. (run, go) 

8. We have that horse, but I have never 
behind this one. (drive, ride) 

my book and —— it. (take, tear) | 


? (come) 


our leave after we had supper. (take, eat) 
off the shéd. (fall) 


south before the lake 


has 


before I —— my 


‘9. Some one has 


10. The poor fellow’s shoes were out, so he 


them away. (wear, throw) 


132 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
LESSON 63 7 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 
Principal Parts 
PRESENT TENSE Past TENSE Past PARTICIPLE 
am was been 
Indicative Mood 
PRESENT TENSE 
Singular Plural : 
1. Tam Weare ~~ 
2. You are You are 
3. He is They are 
Past TENSE 
1. I was We were 
2. You were You were 
3. He was They were \ 
FuTuRE TENSE © | 
1. I shall be We shall be 
2. You will be | You will be 
3. He will be They will be © 
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 
1. I have been We have been 
2. You have been You have been 
~ 3. He has been They have been 
Past PrerRFect TENSE 
1. I had been We had been 
2. You had been You had been 
3. He had been. They had been 


CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 133 


Future Perrect TEensE 


Singular Plural 
1. I shall have been We shall have been 
2. You will have been You will have been 
3. He will have been They will have been 


Notice that shall is used in the first person and will in the 
second and third persons. 


Subjunctive Mood 
These forms are usually preceded by af, though, or lest. 


PRESENT TENSE 


ful be We be 

2. You be You be 

3. He be They be 
Past TENSE 

1. I were We were 

2. You were You were 

3. He were They were - 


The present perfect and past perfect tenses of the sub- 
junctive are the same as the corresponding tenses of the 
indicative, except that the form for the third person, singular 
number, of the present perfect tense is he have been. 


Imperative Mood 
PRESENT TENSE 
2. Be (you) Be (you) 


Infinitives 


PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT 
To be To have been 


~ 134 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Participles 
PRESENT Pasr Past PERFECT 
Being Been Having been 
Gerunds - | 
PRESENT Past 
Being Having been 


The old forms of the second person singular with 
thou are found chiefly in poetry and in solemn language, 
They are: 


Indicative 
PRESENT Thou art 
Past Thou wast or wert 
Future Thou wilt (or shalt) be 


PRESENT Perrect Thou hast been 
Past PERFECT Thou hadst been 
Furure Pserrect Thou wilt (or shalt) have been 


EXERCISE 63 


Learn and recite the complete conjugation of the verb be. 
sai aye ‘64 
CONJUGATION OF SEE IN THE SIMPLE FORM 


Principal Parts 


PRESENT Past Past PARTICIPLE 
see saw seen 


COON = 


Singular Plural 
1. I see We see 
2. You see You see 
3. He sees They see 
Past TENSE 
1. I saw We saw 
2. You saw, You saw 
3. He saw They saw 
Future TENSE 
1. I shall see We shall see 
2. You will see You will see 
3. He will see They will see 
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

. I have seen. We have seen 

. You have seen You have seen 

. He has seen They have seen - 

Past Perrect TENSE 
1. I had seen We had seen 
2. You had seen You had seen 
3. He had seen They had seen 
Future Perrect TENSE 

1. I shall have seen We shall have seen: 
2. You will have seen You will have seen 


. He will have seen 


CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE 
ACTIVE VOICE 


Indicative Mood 


PRESENT TENSE 


They will have seen 


135 


136 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Subjunctive Mood 


PRESENT TENSE 


Singular Plural 

1. I see We see 
2. You see You see 
3.. He see They see 


The past, present perfect, and past perfect tenses of the _ 
subjunctive are the same as the corresponding tenses of the © 
indicative, except that the form for the third person, singular 


number, of the present perfect tense is he have seen. 


Imperative Mood 


PRESENT TENSE 


2. See (you) See (you) 
Infinitives 
PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT 
To see To have seen 
Participles 
PRESENT Past Past PERFECT 
seeing - seen having seen 
Gerunds 
PRESENT Past 


seeing having seen 


wh = 


Whe 


NO & 


CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE 137 


PASSIVE VOICE 


Indicative Mood 


PRESENT TENSE 


Singular Plural 
. Iam seen We are seen 
. You are seen You are seen 
. He is seen They are seen 
Past TENSE 
. I was seen We were seen 
. You were seen You were seen 
. He was seen ' ‘They were seen 
FutTurRE. TENSE 
. I shall be seen We shall be seen 
. You will be seen You will be seen 
. He will be seen They will be seen 
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 
. I have been seen We have been seen 
. You have been seen You have been seen 
. He has been seen They have been seen 
Past Prerrect TENSE 
. I had been seen We had been seen 
. You had been seen You had been seen 
. He had been seen They had been seen 
Future Prerrect TENSE 
. I shall have been seen We shall have been seen. 
. You will have been seen You will have been seen 


. He will have been seen They will have been seen 


138 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Subjunctive Mood 


PRESENT TENSE 


Singular Plural 

1. I be seen We be seen 

2. You be seen You be seen 

3. He be seen They be seen 
Past TENSE 

1. I were seen We were seen 

2. You were seen You were seen 

3. He were seen They were seen 


The present perfect and past perfect tenses of the sub- 
junctive are the same as the corresponding tenses of the 
indicative, except that the form for the third person, singular 
number, of the present perfect tense is he have been seen. 


Imperative Mood 


2. Be (you) seen Be (you) seen 
Participles 
PRESENT | PERFECT 
Being seen Seen, having been seen 
Infinitives 
PRESENT PERFECT 
To be seen ~ To have been seen 


Nore. The participial form having been seen is sometimes called 
the phrasal past participle. 


EXERCISE 64 


Learn and recite the complete conjugation of the verb see. 


Aa 


SPECIAL FORMS OF THE VERB 139 


LESSON 65 


SPECIAL FORMS OF THE VERB 


The emphatic form of the verb asserts more strongly 
than the ordinary, or simple, form. It is made by pre- 
fixing do or did to the present infinitive without the 
to; as, I do see, I did see. The emphatic form is used 
only in the present and past tenses, indicative mood, 
and in the imperative. 


_ The progressive form of the verb represents the action 

as going on at the time referred to by the tense. It is 
made by using forms of the verb be with the present 
participle; as, I am seeing, He was seeing, You have been 
seeing. 


In asking questions, we change the verb to the inter- 
rogative form. For example, the future form, J shail 
write, in a question becomes, Shall I write? The past 
form, He walked, in a question becomes Did he wall? 


In negative sentences, the auxiliaries do and did 
are used in the present and past tenses; as, He did not 
walk. 


In speaking and writing informally, we use certain 
contractions of the verbs; as, can’t for can not, you’re 
for you are. The apostrophe indicates that letters 
have been omitted. _ 


140 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
It is important to remember that 


1. Doesn’t stands for does not and should always be 
used with*pronouns of the third person singular. 


RIGHT WRONG 
He doesn’t speak distinctly. He don’t speak distinctly. 


2. Contractions that end in n’é express a negative 
idea. It is incorrect to use another negative in the's sen- 
tence, for that gives a double negative. 


RIGHT ‘ WRONG 


He hasn’t said anything. He hasn’t said nothing. 
He has said nothing. 


3. The contractions for you are and they are are 
you're and they’re. Do not omit the apostrophe or 
write your, when you intend to use a verb form 


EXERCISE 65 


i 1.) Give the principal parts of these verbs: 
go come do eat take write begin! fell ring run speak 
) Use in a sentence each of the verb forms in Ex. 1. 
. 43 Givethe present tense, indicative mood, active 
voice of the verb love. 

4. Give the present tense, subjunctive mood, active 
voice of walk. 

5. Write a synopsis in the first person of the indicative 
mood, passive voice of choose. 
6. Give the past tense, indicative mood, active voice, 
progressive form of see. 

7. Give the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, 
emphatic form of see. 


AGREEMENT OF THE VERB 141 


LESSON 66 
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB 


1. The verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. : 


Ricu? WRONG 

You were there, Alice. You was there. (Person wrong) 
Mary and George have gone. Mary and George has gone. 
y (Number wrong) 

2. When a verb has two or more subjects connected 
by and, it must have the plural form to agree with them. 

A pronoun must have the plural form to agree with 
two or more antecedents connected by and. 


RIGHT WRoNG 


Poverty and obscurity op- Poverty and obscurity op- 
press him who thinks that presses him who thinks that 
they are oppressive. it is oppressive. 


3. When several singular subjects are preceded by 
each, every, or no, they are taken Separately, and the 
verb is singular. 


RIGHT WrRonG 


Every green leaf and every Every green leaf and every 
blade of grass seems grateful. blade of grass seem grateful. 


4. When a verb has two or more singular subjects 
connected by or or nor, it must have the singular 


142 PART ONE 


form to agree with them. 


pronouns. 


RIGHT 


Either the president or his 
secretary was responsible. 


: GRAMMAR 


A similar rule applies to 


WRONG 


Either the president or his 
secretary were responsible. 


EXERCISE 66 


Supply the correct verb form in each blank space, and tell 


which of the above rules applies: 


1. None of the girls 
2. Health, 
living. 
3. Time and tide 
verb wait.) 


strength, and happiness 


for no man. 


at home. 


from right 


(Use a form of the 


4. The work of Sir Walter Scott and his nokle-character 


5. Each act and each word of ours 


thought. 


* 6. 1 said to my friend, “You 


__ tense) 


7. Each man of all those soldiers 


_ his country. (Past tense) 


8. Neither the lion nor the mouse 
(For the second blank, use the. compound personal 


endeared him to every one. 


worth our 


too hasty.” (Past 


- elad to fight for 


able to help 


pronoun.) 
, LESSON 67 
v W. THE USE OF SHALL AND WILL 


To express simple future time, the auxiliary shall is 
used in the first person and will in the second and the 


third; but when the person speaking determines or + _ 


THE USE OF SHALL AND WILL 143 


- promises, he uses will in the first person and shail in 
the second and third. 


SIMPLE FururE DETERMINATION OR PRoMISE 
Singular —_ Plural Singular Plural 
I shall We shall I will We will 
You will You will You shall You shall 
He will They will - He shall They shall 


Exampies. I ghall be twelve next March. (Simple 
futurity; no determination expressed. ) 


it requires, (Determination is expressed. ) 

You shall have a fountain pen on your birthday. (A 
promise is made.) : 

You shall do that work even if it is disagreeable. (The 
determination of the Speaker is expressed. ) 

He shall pay you every penny. (Determination.) 

The meek shall inherit the earth. (A promise is made.) 


In a question, we use the auxiliary that is expected 
in the answer. 


EXaMpuies. Shall you go? (Answer: I shall go. Simple 
futurity.) 

Will he be able to come? (Answer: He wil] be able to 
come. Simple futurity.) 
~ Will you go next? (Answer: I will go next. A promise 
is made.) 

Will I recognize him when I see him? (Answer: You will. 
Simple futurity.) , 

Should and would, the past tenses of shall and will, 
are used in the same way as shall and will. 


144 


PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE 67 


I. Write three sentences using 


ow fF wWN KF 


Ho 


. Shall in the first person. 

. Will in the first person. 

. Shall in the second person. 
. Shall in the third person. 

. Will in the second person. 
. Will in the third person. 


Use the correct form of the verb (shall or will) i the 


blanks of these sentences: 


Bs arrive on the two-o’clock train. 
2. The captain says that we probably be in port 
to-morrow. 
SPOR not accept such an excuse. 
4, You do as I have commanded. 
5. You not be disappointed again. 
6. He —— be brought to justice, if I live long enough. 
bin | have a large bill to pay, if I am not careful. 
eae be very grateful to you if you do me this 
favor. 3 
9, We have finished by noon. 
10. You help us very much by remaining. — 
11. He says he thinks he not go. 
12. Saturday be the last day that you can register. 
18. you come at one o’clock, please? 
14. ——I tell him to come at the same time? 
15. ——— the men be able to finish to-day? 


THE VERBS LAY, LIE, SIT, SET 145 


es oy LESSON 68 
REVIEW OF VERBS © 


EXERCISE 68 


Give the voice, mood, tense, person, and number of the verbs 
wm the following sentences: 


1. It was the schooner Hesperus 
_ That sailed the wintry sea; 
And the skipper had taken his little daughter 
To bear him company. 
2. Scrooge took his melancholy dinner in his usual 
melancholy tavern. 
“3. “You'll want all day to-morrow, I suppose,’ said 
Scrooge. 
4. If this be treason, make the most of it. 
5. Iam going, O my people, 
On a long and distant journey. 
6. At the end of this week, I shall have been in school 
Sour years. 
7. If I were you, I would try that. 
8. After the meeting, my grandfather and I took a walk, 
9. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining; 
Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. 
10. Then we shall have done al! that can be done. 
y, 


LESSON 69 
THE PROPER USE OF THE VERBS LAY, LIE, SIT, SET 


We may speak of luying or setting something down, 
or may say that something is lazd or is set; but we can 


146 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


not speak of lying or sitting something, or of something 
being lain or sat. 

Set is generally transitive; sit always intransitive. 

Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an ob- 
ject; as, The sun set; He set out on a journey. 

Lay is transitive; lve, intransitive. 

Lay, the present of the first verb, and lay, the past 
of lve, are easily distinguished by the difference in 
meaning and in the time expressed. 

Read carefully these sentences in which different 
forms of these verbs are used correctly: 

1. Lay aside your work. 
. Ine down and rest. 
. I laid aside my work. 
. I lay down and rested. 
. I have laid.aside my work. 
. I have lain down. 
. Set the watch. 
. Sit down a while. 
. I set the watch. 
. I sat down. 
. I have set the watch. 
. I have sat down a while. 


Oo CON SD oO KP WL WH 


ee ee 
wonwnore © 


. The work was laid aside. 
. I was lying down, resting. 


ao 
ov 


. The watch was set by the town clock. 


— 
(=P) 


. She was sztting on the stile. 


fk 
~J 


. The hen szts on her eggs. 
. She lay down each day for a nap. 
. The land of dreams lies between sleeping and waking. 


— he 
© oO 


- 


THE VERBS LAY, LIE, SIT, SE'r 14? 
EXERCISE 69 


Remember that the use of correct or incorrect lan- 
guage is a habit. You must form the habit of using the 
right expression, and you will have to watch yourself 
closely until the habit is formed. Have you used any 
of the following verbs incorrectly in your speech? 


Write these sentences, filling each blank with the correct form 
of the verb. Then read the sentences aloud. 


ee te heat [calc (do) 


2. When I home, I found the fire out. (come) 

3. My father has — to California. (go) 

4. The hen an egg in tho haylort. (lay or lie ?). 

5. My aunt —— down and <tzyed half an hour. (sit or 
set ?) 


6. Mother has a nove to the teacher to explain 
my absence. (write) 
7. That stone has 
lay ?) 
8. The rain had 
9. The linen was 
10. He as if he were nearly starved. (eat) 


11. Many people were down in the street by the 
shock of the earthquake. (inrow) 


in the road for a week. (lie o¢ 


. 


( fall) 


away in lavender. (le or lay ?) 


12. The houses for miles around were and many 
windows were ——. (shake, break) 

13. The big elm tree in front of the house was’ 
by the roots. (tear) 


14. He has deep of ail knowledge. (drink\ 


up 


“| 


148 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


15. They —— work on the bridge last year. (begin) 

16. Many of the birds have already south. ( fly) 

17. When Peary back from the North Pole, he was 
received with great honor. (come) 

18. They should have their seats more quietly; 
the concert had (take, begin) | 

19. The canoe was from the boathouse last night. 


(steal) 

20. A great crowd —— the man leap into the river. (see) 

21. I am sorry I —— it. (do) 

22. Dot the kettle on the hob. (s?é or set ?) 

23. “‘I have —— on that throne so long,’’ said the king, 
“that I am really very tired of it.’”’ (sit or set?) 

24. Carter was unanimously —— football captain. 
(choose) | eS 

25. The fairy godmother acted as if she all about 
it. (know) 

26. Feather beds should be well (shake) 


27. He had to walk five miles to town because his 
bicycle was (break) 


LESSON 70 
ERRORS OF SPEECH 


Error. I have got that book at home. 

This is wrong because have, alone, asserts possession. 
Got, used in the sense of obtained, is correct; as, 1 have 
just got the book. 


ERRORS OF SPEECH 149 


_ Error. There is many mistakes in my composition. 
This is wrong because the verb should agree with 
its plural subject, mistakes. 


' Error. It ain’t there. Ain’t I next? 
Ain’t is not in good use. The sentences should be, 
“It is not there” or ‘It isn’t there”; ‘Am I not next?” 


Error. I, Henry, and you have been chosen. 

Politeness requires that you should mention first the 
one spoken to, then the one spoken of, and-yourself last. 

Be careful, also, not to use J as the object of a verb 
or a preposition, or me as the subject of a verb. 


EXERCISE 70 


I. Correct the following misccllancous errors and give 
reasons for the corrections you. make: 


jams 


. She give us four apples. 

. Henry don’t like to practice. 

. They called John and I. 

I saw a man which had been in the European War. 
. I hoped to completely finish the book to-day. 

. My cousin has got red hair. 

- I couldn’t hear nothing where I set. 

. If I was you, I would accept the offer. 


OONAN HL YK 


. Us boys ‘had a picnic. 
. We saw them girls there. 
. At the head of the line was George and him. 


. Aren’t there any more wood? 
: Le 
II. Study the general summary of Errors or SprEcH on 


page 296. 


im 
No = © 


150 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


LESSON 71 


ANALYSIS; PARSING VERBS 


Written Parsine: Verss. The Yankee, selling hisfarm, 
wanders away to seek new lands. 


CLASSIFICATION MopDIFICATION SYNTAX 


Verbs Kind Voice {| Mood} Tense} Num. | Per. 


sellingtol Pare in | AG tos eee Pres yes:, el): sae 
| TP, 
wenders| Reg.,Int. ]......] Ind. 


to seek! | Trt dts | Ac. is \-eee CAN Latensieed [airs | 
Troe | wanders 


1 Participles and infinitives have no person or number. 


EXERCISE 71 
Analyze the following sentences and parse the verbs: 


1. Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with 
good. 

2. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky! 

3. Help me, Cassius, or I sink! 

v4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inac- 
tion? 7 are | 

5. Keep the golden mean between saying too much and 
saying too little. 

‘6. Thy mercy, O Lord, is.in the heavens, and thy 

faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds. 


CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES — 151 


Y, ‘The rain descended, -and the floods came, and the 
7 winds blew, and beat upon ‘that house, 

8. Why stand we here idle? 

9. The heavens declare His righteousness, and all the 
people see His glory. . 

10. Good health and good sense are two of life’s greatest 
blessings. 
_ 11. Without scme green vegetables, the body could not 

keep healthy. 

-12. The world may be divided into three kingdoms— 
the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral. 

13. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces 
white light. 

14. Soap bubbles, when exposed to bent, exhibit colored 
rings. 


LESSON 72 - 
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 


When I say, ‘‘red silk flag,” the words red and silk 
modify the word flag by telling the kind, pad restrict: 
the word to flags of that kind. 

When I say, “‘this flag, yonder flag, one flag,’ the 
words this, yonder, and one do not tell the kind, but 
simply point out or number, limiting the word flag to 
the flag pointed out or numbered. 

Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a 
quality, and so are called descriptive adjectives. 

Adjectives of the second class limit by pointing out 
or numbering, and so are called limiting adjectives. 


Nots. Limiting adjectives are also called definitive adjectives. 


152 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


An adjective is a word used to modify a substantive. 
A descriptive adjective is one that modifies by expressing 
quality. | 

A limiting adjective is one that modifies by pointing out, 
numbering, or denoting quantity. 


There are two classes of descriptive adjectives, proper 
and common. 

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns; as, 
French, Austrian. Proper adjectives begin with capital 
letters. 

Common adjectives are not derived from proper nouns; _ 
as, windy. manly, good, bad. 


The classes of limiting adjectives are articles, pro- 
nominal adjectives, and numerals. | 

The articles are the, a, and an. The is the definite 
article, and a and an are the indefinite articles. 

Pronominal adjectives are words which are used some- 
times as substantives and sometimes as adjectives. 
If their function in any sentence: is that of a-substan- 
ive, they are pronouns. In sentences where they 
are used as adjectives, they are called pronominal 
adjectives. 


CLASSES OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 


Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, whose. 
Demonstrative: this, that, etc. 
Interrogative: what, which, ec. 
Relative: which, whose. 
_ Indefinite: some, any, no, every, each, other, neither, eéc. 


CLASSES OF ADJ ECTIVES 153 


Intensive: very. 
Identifying: same 


When the possessive pronominal adjective stands in the 
predicate, the forms are mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, 
theirs, and whose, like those of the possessive pronoun. 


A numeral adjective tells how many or in what order. 
If it tells how many, it is a cardinal numeral; as, ten 
men. If it tells in what order, it is an ordinal numeral; 
as the tenth man. 


EXERCISE 72 


Classify the adjectives in these sentences, remembering that 
the function of the word decides whether it is an adjective or 
apronoun.. Select the nouns that are used adjectively. 


1. Night’s candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 
2. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

3. So they took the little fir from its place, carried it in 
joyous proeession to the edge of the glade, and laid it on 
the sledge. 

4. Withered leaves still clung to the branches of the 
oak—torn and faded banners of the departed summer. 

_6. Patience is the best remedy for every trouble. 
~ 6. We always have, the same trouble when we land on 
- that side of the pier. 
‘fs What ship is that? 
‘8. There is a Power whose care 
Teaches thy way along that pathless coast. 
9. I was bred and born 
Not three hours’ travel from this very place 


154 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


10. He that: is slow to anger is better than the mighty. 
11. One blast upon his bugle horn 
Were worth a thousand men. 
12. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, 
and some few to be chewed and digested. 
13. Confucius is the most famous of Chinese philoso- 
phers. 
14. To thine own self be true, 
And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 


15. For the first time, I read that chapter of American 
history. 


LESSON 73 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
Adjectives have but one modification—comparison. 


Comparison is a modification of the adjective to express 
different degrees of quality. 


Notre. Different degrees of quantity, also, may be expressed 
by comparison. 


The positive degree expresses the simple quality. 

The comparative degree expresses a greater or a less 
degree of the quality. | 

The superlative degree expresses the greatest or the 
least degree of the quality. 

Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to 
the positive to form the comparative, and est to the 
positive to form the superlative. 


COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES . 155 


EXAMPLE, PosrTIve COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
dark darker darkest 


Adjectives of two or more syllables are often eom- 
pared by prefixing more and most. To express diminu- 
tion, we prefix less and least. 


EXampLes. beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 
attractive, less attractive, least attractive. 


Often an adjective may be compared in either of the 
two ways; as, lovely, lovelier; loveliest ; lovely, more 
lovely, most lovely. Of the two forms of comparison, 
it is better to use the one that is more easily pronounced 
and more agreeable to the ear. 

Some adjectives are compared irregularly. . Learn 
these forms: 


POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
good better best 
bad 
evil worse worst | 

ill 

little - less least 
much | 
ae more | me 


Most limiting adjectives and many descriptive ad- 
jectives cannot be compared, as their meanin g will not 
admit of different degrees. For instance, unanimous 
means by the consent. of all; consequently no act carn 
be described as more unanimous. 


156 PART ONE: GRAMMAR . 
EXERCISE 73 V 


Compare such of the following adjectives as can be compared. 
If necessary, consult the dictionary for spelling. 


tame two-wheeled mad any holy 
warm amiable witty that thin 
one vertical greedy common pretty 
brilliant high hot polite decided 
LESSON 74 Ww 


CLASSES OF ADVERBS 


In the sentence ‘‘His task was done quickly,” the 
meaning of the verb was done is modified by the word 
quickly, telling how the task was done. Quickly is one 
of the class of words called adverbs. 

‘‘Franklin lived to be a very old man.” Here the 
adverb very modifies the adjective old. 

‘The witness answered quite frankly.”” Here frankly 
is an adverb modifying the verb answered, and frankly 
is in turn modified by another adverb, quite. 


An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, 
or an adverb. 

Adverbs of time answer the question, When? 

EXAMPLES. early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently. 
He will come soon. ; 


Adverbs of place are those that generally answer the 
question, Where? 


EXAMPLES. away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within. 
I will go away. 


CLASSES OF ADVERBS 157 


Adverbs of degree are those that generally answer the 
question, To what extent? 


EXAMPLES. exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficientiy, too, 
very. ‘Lhe tea is very hot. 


Adverbs of manner are those that generally answer - 
the question, In what way? 


EXAMPLES. plainly, so, thus, well, not. He spoke plainly. 


Adverbs of cause are those that generally answer the 
question, Why? 

EXAMPLES. hence, therefore, why. The sun is down, 
therefore it is dark. Why are you late? ; 


Relative adverbs join clauses. They belong to the 
five classes given above, but in addition to their modify- 
ing function they connect clauses. 

Exampues. He died as he had lived. 

The leaves fall when autumn comes. 

Lhis line is not straight; hence it does not measure the 
shortest distance between the points which it joins, 


Interrogative adverbs are those used in asking ques- 
tions. They belong to the five classes of adverbs named 
above. : 


Exampies. How can this be done? 
Where is the source of this river? ; 
When was the battle of Gettysburg fought? 


Adverbs may be used independently; as, 
Now, there must be an error here. 


Adverbs may modify a phrase; as, 
He came just in time. 


158 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 
Adverbs may modify a preposition; as, 
It went far beyond the mark. 


Adverbs are often used to make a statement negative; 
as, 


Reénforcements did not arrive in time. 


No and yes, used in answering questions, show how the 
thought presented is received, and may be classed with ad- 
verbs of manner. They seem to modify words omitted in 
the answer but contained in the question; as, ‘‘ Did you see 
him? No.” The no is equivalent to ‘I did not see him.” 

“Will you go? Yes.” The force of yes may be seen by 
substituting certainly. ‘Will you go? Certainly.” That is, 
“Certainly I will go,” or “I will certainly go.” 

As no and yes represent or suggest complete answers, they 
may be called sentence words. 


EXERCISE 74 


Point out the adverbs in these sentences and tell to what class 
or classes each belongs: 


1. The phantom slowly, eravely, and silently ap- 
proached. 

2. Nobody ever stopped him in the street to ask, with 
gladsome looks, ‘‘My dear Scrooge, how are you?” 


3. The bell swung so softly at the outset that it scarcely 
made a sound; but soon it rang out loudly, and so did every 
bell in the house. 


4. In came all the people, one after another; some 
shyly, some boldly, some gracefully, some awkwardly, some 
pushing, some pulling; in they all came, anyhow and . 
everyhow. 


COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 159 


5. All Scrooge could make out was that it was still 
very foggy and extremely. cold, and that there was no 
noise of people running to and fro. 

- 6. “Spirit,” said Scrooge submissively, “conduct me 
where you will.” 

7. The slow potatoes, bubbling up, knocked loudly at 
the saucepan-lid, to be let out and peeled. 

8. Martha did not like to see her father disappointed, 
if it were only in joke. 

9. The people were by this time pouring forth, as he 
had seen them with the Ghost of Christmas Present. 


Yr . 


LESSON 75 co oY 
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 


The only modification of adverbs is comparison. 
Some adverbs form their comparative and superlative 
by adding er and est to the positive. 


EXAMPLES. soon, sooner, soonest. 


fast, faster, fastest. 


Adverbs of more than one syllable generally form 
their comparative and superlative by prefixing more 
and most, or less and least, to the positive. 


EXAMPLes. slowly, more slowly, most slowly. 
decidedly, more decidedly, most decidedly. 
Many adverbs cannot be compared. 


EXAMPLES. where, how, now, there, when. 


160 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Some adverbs are compared irregularly. Learn these 
forms: 


PosIrIvE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
badly 

: worse worst 

ill | 
well better best 
little less least 
much more most 

far farther farthest 


EXERCISE 75 

Point out the adverbs, tell of what degree each adverb 1s, and 
compare it, if it can be compared: 
/l. The tortoise plodded steadily on and won the race. 
‘9. The hare ran as fast as he could, but he was so far 
behind that he could not catch up with the tortoise. 

3. It often happens in this way that the one who goes on 
slowly and surely wins the race. 

4. Thanksgiving Day is usually the last Thursday in 
November. 

5. The Pilgrims received thankfully the small blessings 
that came to them during their first year in America. 

6. Few people keep Thanksgiving nowadays as joyfully 
and as sincerely as the Pilgrims did. 

7 It sometimes seems that the more people have, the , 
less grateful they are. 


LESSON 76 is 
THE CORRECT USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 


1. When two things or groups of things are compared, 
the comparative degree is used. When more than two 
are compared, the superlative is used. 


‘ . 


USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS BY 


Rieur WRONG 
George is the older of the ‘George is the oldest of the 
two boys. two boys. 
The river road is the short- The river road is the shorter 
est of the three. of the three. 


2. Adjectives should not be doubly compared. 


Rigut WrRona 


He suffered the keenest He suffered the most keen- 
Sorrow. est sorrow. 


3. Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly. 


Ricur | WRoNG 
The game was interesting. The game was gine Ins 
teresting. | 
We had a delightful vaca- We had a perfectly delight- 
tion. ful vacation. 


4. Do not use the pronoun them for the pronominal 
adjective those. 
RIGHT WRonG 
Where are all those people Where are all them people 


going? going? 
5. Do not use adjectives for adverbs. 


Ricut ' WRoNG 
He writes well. He writes good. 


6. Do not use the adverbs here and there as adjectives, 


RiGuHtT WRONG 


That book is mine. . That there book is mine. 
The book that you have 
there is mine. 


162 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


7. Do not use double negatives. 


RicHtT WRONG 
I did nothing. I did not do nothing. 


EXERCISE 76 


I. Correct the following errors and give reasons why each 
sentence 1s wrong: 
1. The baby looked awfully sweet. 3 
. He was the most wildest savage of the lot 
3: ae is the tallest of the two, but George is the | 
oldest. 
4. Did you eat all them apples?# 
5. He chose a more humbler part. 
6. Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, 0) 
Minnesota? 
7. Which do you prefer better? 5 
Prefer=lke better. 
8. The paper was ‘written careful. - 
9. I thought that Mary was the iar of the two. / 
10. He ain’t ever coming back no_more.' 
11. They couldn’t be no_ more Sapa L 
12. The soldier was wounded bad. ~ 
13. You don’t care nothing for nobody but yourself. 
14. This here paper is torn. ' 
15. I hain’t got no paint brush. 
16. He is best of the two. 
17. He visited the most principal cities.4_ 
18. This plan was worser than the others.} 


IT. Study the general summary of Errors or SPEECH on 
page 296. 


\. Val \ 
0 - -CONJUNCTIONS 163 
LESSON 77 
CONJUNCTIONS 


“The stars look down upon the roofs of the living 
_and upon the graves of the dead, but neither the living 
nor the dead are conscious of their gaze.” 

Here and, but, neither, and nor connect phrases and 
clauses of equal rank, or order. Two or more phrases 
or clauses of equal rank are called coordinate, and the 
conjunctions connecting them are coordinating con- 
junctions. Clauses connected by coordinating conjunc- 
tions may be independent. or subordinate, but the 
clauses connected are of equal rank. 


“At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as (it would 
seem) if the heavens were lighted up that the nations 
might behold the scene.”’ 

Here as, if, and that connect each a lower, or subor- 
dinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and hence are 
_ ¢alled subordinating conjunctions. One clause may be 
independent and the other subordinate, or both may 
be subordinate but of unequal rank. 


“TI will help you with your work vf I can find a time 
when I can leave my own.” 

If I can find a time is a subordinate clause depending 
upon the independent clause, J will help you with your 
work. The last clause, when I can leave my own, is also 
a subordinate clause, but it is still lower in rank than 
the clause introduced by 7, because it depends on that 
élause for its meaning and modifies a word in it, time. 


164 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


Conjunctions that are used in pairs (such as either . . . or, 


both... and, not only . . . but also) are called correlative con- 
junctions. 


As if, in case that, and similar groups of connective words 
are called compound conjunctions, in distinction from the 
simple conjunctions. 


A conjunction is a word used to connect words, par Aner? 
or clauses. 

Coordinating conjunctions are such as connect words, 
phrases, and clauses of the same rank. | 

Subordinating conjunctions are such as connect clauses of 
different ranks. ~ 


Like is not a conjunction. It is incorrect to use like 
‘in place of as or as if to connect a subordinate with a 
principal rlause. 


RIGHT WRONG 
It looked as 7f he would win. _ It looked like he would win. 


There are connectives other than conjunctions. 
Relative pronouns and relative adverbs also connect 
clauses. The following examples distinguish between 
conjunctions proper and relative adverbs and relative 
pronouns. 


CONJUNCTIONS RELATIVE ADVERBS RELATIVE PRONOUNS 


although also that 
and - consequently what 
because how which 
but when who 
if where 


neither ... nor why 


PREPOSITIONS 165 


EXERCISE 77 


Using appropriate connectives, change the following com- 
pound sentences to complex sentences, and then analyze them: 
(1, Many receive advice, few profit by it. 
2. Vessels large may venture more, 
But little boats should keep near shore. 
3. The world is a wheel, and it will all come round right. 


4. A faithful and good servant is a real godsend; but 
truly ’tis a rare bird in the land. 


d. Let down the curtain ; the farce is done. 


6. Cannon balls may aid the truth, 
But thought’s a weapon stronger. 


7. Coal and diamonds seem to have little in common, but 
they are both carbon. 


8. A deep silence fell upon the crowd, and Abraham 
Lincoln stepped forward. 


9. The people of Boston emptied the tea into the harbor : 
they objected to taxation without representation. 


LESSON 78 
PREPOSITIONS : 


A preposition is a word that introduces a phrase and shows 
the relation of its object to the word modified by the phrase. 


Some of the prepositions in common use are: 


/ aboard after among below _— beyond 

~ about against around beneath but 
above along at beside by 
according to amid before besides concerning 


across - amidst behind between down 


166 | PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


during in past to . unto 
ere inside save toward up 
except into since towards upon 
excepting of through under with 
for on throughout underneath within 
from over till until without 


Concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, pend- 
ung, regarding, respecting, and touching are participles in 
form and sometimes are used as participles. But in 
most cases the participial meaning has faded out of 
these words, and they express mere relations. There- 
fore, they are generally prepositions. | 

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun 
which ordinarily follows them is omitted; as, He rode 
past. He stands above. 

The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, be- 
cause of, from among, from under, and instead of are called 
compound prepositions, in distinction from the simple prepo- 
sitions. 


EXERCISE 78 

Point out the prepositions in the following paragraph: 

One of the most terrorizing spectacles with which the 
heavens ever caused the hearts of men to quake occurred on 
the night of November 13, 1833. On that night North 
America, which faced the storm, was under a continual rain 
of fire, from about ten o’clock in the evening until daybreak. 
The fragments of a comet had struck the earth. But the 
meaning of what had happened was not dis¢overed until 
long afterward. To the astronomers who, with astonishment 
no less than that of other people, watched the wonderful 
scene, it was an unparalleled shower of meteors. 

GARRETT P. SERVISS 


VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH 167 


LESSON 79 
INTERJECTIONS 


An interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden 
feeling. . 


Interjections are exclamations without grammatical 
relations to any word in the sentence. Any part of 
speech may be used as an interjection; as, 


Quick! I fear it is too late. 


EXERCISE 79 
. Point out the interjections: 
. Farewell! a long farewell, to all my greatness! ; 
- What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? 
. Hush! hark! what noise is that ? 
. Hark, hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings. 
. Get you hence, sirrah; saucy fellow, hence! 


Conall! SAT iy orm 


. Oh, Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done. 


7. Oh, dear! do you remember the mysteries we boys used 
to invent? 


II. 1. Name the eight parts of speech. 
2. Define each of the parts of speech. 
3. In sentences give examples of each part of speech. 
M LESSON 80 
WORDS USED AS VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH 


It frequently happens that the same word is one part 
of speech in one sentence and another part of speech 


168 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 


in another sentence where the word is used differently. 
The function of a word in a sentence determines what 
part of speech it 1s. We have seen that in a sentence 
like ‘This is too much,” this is a pronoun, while in 
“This morning was very clear,” this is an adjective. 
Almost any word is capable of being used as more than 
one part of speech. 

“The lake is round.’”’ Here round is an adjective. 
‘“The watchman was making his round”; here round 
is a noun. “He ran round the house’; here it is a 
preposition. ‘‘We shall round the point by sunset”’; 
here it is a verb. ‘‘The wheel turns rouwnd”’; here it is 
an adverb. 


EXERCISE 80 


I. Name the function and the part of speech of each word 
in italics: 


_— 


. We read many books during the swmmer vacation. 
. Where are you going this summer? 

. Willams had decided to swmmer in Maine. 

. send me the book by mail. 

He went to book passage to Southampton. 

You can secure it of any book dealer. 

. All but him had fled. 

. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. 


CONarnh WD 


. But me no but’s. 
. Life is but a dream. 


Ree ger er: 
re © 


. We meet but to part. 
. He stood the test. 
. This will test your knowledge of woodcraft. 


oa a ee 
m= W bo 


. A test case was made of it. 


VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH / 469 


15. Iron is the most useful metal. 
16. Byron has been called ‘physician of the cron age.” 
17. Iron out the wrinkles. 


II. Construct sentences containing these words as different 
are of speech: 


answer equal last sound under 
back fall outside spring water 
better fan paper stone white 
calm fast — part table wrong 


down ink past that walk 


— 


PART TWO 
COMPOSITION 


PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


LESSON 1 
A STOCK OF WORDS 


The more words you know and can use, the nearer 
you can come to saying what you wish to say. If a 
person knows only a few words, he can talk and write 
about only a few things. Frequently he cannot: say 
what he means because he does not know just the right 
word to express his meaning. It is necessary, therefore, 
to have a large stock of words. This stock of words 
1s our vocabulary. 

How can we increase our vocabulary? We learn 
words by hearing other people use them and by finding 
them in our reading. When we come upon a new word, 
however, it is not added to our stock until we under- 
stand it and can use it ourselves. When the meaning 
of a new word is not immediately clear to us from the 
way it is used by the speaker or writer, we must learn 
its meaning. We can do this by asking some one who 
knows or by looking up the word in the dictionary. 

Every one who desires to learn to write and talk 
well should use the dictionary freely. Whenever you 
hear or read a new word, look it up in the dictionary 
and find out all you can about it. Then use the new 


174 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


word whenever there is opportunity in your conversa- 
tion or writing. 

It is important that you use a reliable and scholarly 
dictionary and one that has been recently published, 
for words change in meaning and new words are being 
continually added to the language. Webster’s New 
International Dictionary, the New Standard Dictionary, 
and the Century Dictionary, which are the best authori- 
ties in the United States, are very large and complete. 
For final authority on words, you will have to go to 
the large dictionaries, but for most questions as to un- 
familiar words you can use the smaller dictionaries. 

The dictionary tells you how to spell the word, how 
to pronounce it, what its origin is, what part of speech 
it usually is, and what it means. A word may have 
several distinct meanings, and the dictionary gives 
all of these under different numbers. For instance, if 
you look up the word monitor in Webster’s Secondary 
School Dictionary, you will find five different mean- 
ings. | 

Suppose we have read the sentence ‘‘In this picture 
Sir Walter Raleigh is shown wearing a ruff.”’ If we con- 
sult the dictionary for information about ruff, we shall — 
find in the Secondary School Dictionary three different 
words spelled and pronounced alike. The third word 
ruff has three meanings. The first of these is “A kind — 
of muslin collar, plaited, crimped, or fluted.’”’? This 
meaning fits the word as used above, and we know that 
it is the definition we are looking for. 

At the bottom of each page of the dictionary is a key 
explaining how the markings of the letters are to be 
used as a guide to pronunciation. 


WORD STUDY 17 


Or 


EXERCISE 1 


In a good dictionary, find the meaning and the pronuncia- 
tion of the following words. If more than one meaning is 
given for a word, learn all of them. 


_ 1. ruminate 8. craven (noun)\15. tricolor 
V2. pedestrian 9. lower-case \ 16. quest 
_ 3. snaffle 10. repertoire 17. waive 
V4. blithely 11. sedan chair 18. pneumatic 
5. minstrel 12. integrity 19. lapidary 
6. pelf 13. emissary 20. talisman 
7. concentered 14. scuttle 
LESSON 2 
WORD STUDY 
EXERCISE 2 


Unless you are sure that you know the meaning of each 
italicized word in the following selection, look it up wm the 
dictionary and be able to give the meaning in class. 


LINCOLN’s FONDNESS FOR MEASURING 


Lhe pomp and circumstance of the White House itself did 
not abate Mr. Lincoln’s fondness for measuring. How deeply 
rooted this trait was, may be gathered from the following 
typical scene, described by one who happened to be present. 
On one of the President’s public audience days, a stalwart 
caller approached Mr. Lincoln awkwardly and managed to 
explain that, being on a visit to the capital, he desired, be- 
fore leaving, to see the President and to have the honor of 
shaking hands with him. 

Mr. Lincoln, as he smilingly complied, surveyed the big 


176 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


man from head to foot and said, in his playful way, “I 
rather think that you have a little the pa of me in 
height. You are a taller man than I am.’ 

“T guess not, Mr. President,’’ as the visitor; ‘the 
advantage es be on my side.” 

“Yes, it is,” was the rejoinder. “I have a pretty good eye 
for distances, and I think that I cannot be mistaken in the 
fact of the advantage being slightly with you. I measure 
six feet three and a half inches in my stockings, and you go, 
I think, a little beyond that.” 

As the other still politely demurred, Mr. Lincoln said, 
“It is very easily tested.” | 

Rising from his chair, he placed a book edgewise against 
the wall just higher than his head. Then turning to his 
visitor, he bade him ‘‘Come under.” This the stranger hesi- 
tated to do, his countenance the while wearing a bewildered yet 
half-smiling expression that, we are told, was comical to see. 

‘““Come under, I say,’’ repeated the President in a more 
peremptory tone, and the visitor slowly complied. When 
Mr. Lincoln, in his turn, stepped under the book, he was, 
found to have fallen a trifle short of the other’s measurement. 

“There,” he said, “it is as I told you. I knew I couldn’t 
be mistaken. I rarely fail in taking a man’s true altitude 
by the eye.” 

AtLonzO ROTHSCHILD 


LESSON 3. 
THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 


1. Begin the first word of every sentence with a 
capital letter. — 

2. Begin the first word of every line of poets as 

a capital letter. | 


THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 177 


3. Begin the first word of a direct quotation with a 
capital letter. 


A direct quotation is one that gives the exact words of 
another; as, He said, ““Come with me.” 


_ 4. Begin proper names and words derived from them 
with capital letters. 
o. Use capital letters in writing the. words I and O. 
6. Begin an abbreviation with a capital letter if the 
word abbreviated begins with a capital. 


e EXERCISE 3 


I. Tell why each capital letter 7s used in the selection on 
“Lincoln’s Fondness for M easuring”’ (page 175). 


IL Write these sentences, using capitals where they are 
needed: 


ae honor and shame from no condition rise; 
act well your part, there all the honor lies. 
2. the atlantic ocean beat mrs. partington. 
3. the-question is, “can law make people honest?” 
4. the heroic nelson destroyed the french fleet in aboukir 
bay. 
5. at midday, o king, i saw in the way a light from heaven. 


6. he sent all further communications to the royal society 
_of london. 


the associates met at oxford in the rooms of dr. wilkins, 
who was destined to become a bishop. 


8. “ah,” he answered, “‘i fished this brook forty-five years 
ago. it was in the paradise valley that i first thought of 
rip van winkle. i wanted to come back again for the sake 
of old times.” | 


178 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


9. many of the villages of mesopotamia are built of 
second-hand bricks of a very good quality, obtained from the 
ruins of babylon. 

10. every wednesday morning, on entering school, each 
pupil was expected to lay his exercise on mr. grimshaw’s 
desk; the subject was usually selected by mr. grimshaw 
himself the monday previous. 

11. in december we had two weeks’ vacation. 


12. the room was filled with mexican pottery. 


soy 
nw 


LESSON 4 
WRITING SENTENCES 


A frequent fault in compositions is the failure to 
recognize what is and what is not a sentence. Pupils 
often punctuate as a sentence what is really only a part 
of a sentence. For example: 


On Saturday we went to a cave. Which is the largest 
eave in the county. A stream of water flows out of it. 
And you have to enter the cave in a boat. | 


The first two expressions ending with periods are really 
parts of one sentence. The last two sentences sound 
much better when combined as one sentence. T he 
paragraph should: be rewritten thus: | 


On Saturday we went to a cave, which is the largest in the 
county. A stream of water flows out of it, and you have to 
enter the cave in a boat. 


Another fault is running two or more sentences to- 


. 


WRITING SENTENCES 179 


gether. The following paragraph fails to show where 
one sentence leaves off and another begins: 


Cooking is the most interesting work that we have at our 
school once a week we go to the domestic science center and . 
have a lesson in cooking the week before Christmas our 
lesson was on candy-making I learned to make good fudge 
and have made it several times since then at home. 


This seems to be one sentence. On examining it, we 
see that the writer has carelessly run together what 
should be written as four sentences, thus: 


Cooking is the most interesting work that we have at 
our school. Once a week we go to the domestic science 
center and have a lesson in cooking. The week before Christ- 
mas our lesson was on candy-making. I learned to make 
good fudge and have made it several times since then at 
home. 


Sometimes sentences are strung together with and’s, 
making a sentence that is much too long and very 
awkward. In talking, pupils sometimes join every 
sentence to the one before it with and or then or but.- 
This bad habit should be overcome. Note the following 
sentence: 


Columbus asked the King of Portugal for aid in his plan 
to find a water route to India and the king sent out an expe- 
dition to see if Columbus was right and if the world was 
really round and this expedition came back and reported 
that the plan was impossible and this disgusted Columbus 
and he left Portugal and went to the court of Spain for aid 
and here through the influence of Queen Isabella he received 
the necessary assistance to fit out his expedition. 


180 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


This long sentence should be broken up into several! sen- 
tences, and most of the and’s should be omitted, thus: 


Columbus asked the King of Portugal for aid in his plan 
to find a water route to India. The king sent out aa expedi- 
tion to see if Columbus was right, and if the world was really 
round. This expedition came back and reported that the 
plan was impossible. This disgusted Columbus, and he 
left. Portugal and went to the court of Spain for aid. Here, 
through the influence of Queen Isabella, he received. the 
necessary assistance to fit out his expedition. 


Another fault of inexperienced writers is the use of 
short and choppy sentences. Short, clear sentences 
are better than long, rambling, and confused ones in 
which the meaning is doubtful; but sentences need not 
be so short as in the following example: 


Select strong, healthy tomato plants. Prepare the soil 
well. Make it fine by working. Set them out after all 
danger of frost is over. Cultivate the plants frequently. 
Keep the ground fine and loose. Drive a stake from six to 
eight feet long close to each plant. Trim each plant to one, 
two, or three main stems. Tie the plants to the stakes. 


The passage would be improved if written as follows: 


Prepare the soil by working it up and making it fine. 
Select strong, healthy tomato plants and set them out after | 
all danger of frost is over. Cultivate the plants frequently 
to keep the ground fine and loose. Drive a stake from six 
to eight feet long close to each plant. Trim each plant to 
one, two, or three main stems, and tie them to the stakes. 


Be careful not to punctuate a part of a sentence as if it 
were a whole sentence. | 
Do not run two or more sentences together. 


THREE LITTLE MASTERPIECES 181 


In speaking and writing, avoid using and, then, and but 
too frequently. 
Avoid a succession of short, choppy sentences. 


EXERCISE 4 


Two or three compositions should be written on the black- 
board. Study the sentences ia these compositions. 

Are the sentences too long? 

Are they too short and choppy? 

Are there any groups of words punctuated as sentences 
which are not sentences? 

Are there any two sentences which could with advantage 
be combined into one? 

Is there a.sentence which ought to be separated into two 
or more sentences? ; 


To the Teacher. It is a good plan to keep on hand a number of 
old compositions as material for study and correction. Pupils will 
find the correction of these compositions valuable because the sen- 
tences contain errors that have actually occurred in the work of the 
class. Instead of writing compositions on the board, you may wish to 
reproduce them with some form of the hectograph, making as many 
copies as there are pupils in the class. 


LESSON 5 
THREE LITTLE MASTERPIECES 


One of the surest aids to growth in the use of our 
language 1s to read the best prose and poetry of English 
and American literature. The reading of books written 
by masters of English will enrich your vocabulary and 
expand your thinking. As a result, you will in time 
develop the ability to express yourself well both in 


182 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


speaking and in writing. Study the group of little 
masterpieces given in this lesson. Each is a noble 
piece of writing on account of its thought and ex- 
pression. 


At MoRNING 


The day returns and brings us the petty round of irritat- 
ing concerns and duties. Help us to play the man; help us 
to perform them with laughter and kind faces; let cheerful- 
ness abound with industry. Give us to go blithely on our 
business all this day; bring us to our resting beds, weary and 
content and undishonored; and grant us in the end the gilt 
of sleep. 

RoBeRT Lovis STEVENSON 


My Native LAnp 


Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land? 
Whose heart hath ne’er within him burned, 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him well; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim,— 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentered all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhcnored, and unsung. 

Sir WALTER Scott 


PUNCTUATION 183 


OPPORTUNITY 


This I beheld, or dreamed it in a dream:— 

There spread a cloud of dust along a plain; 

And underneath the cloud, or in it, raged 

A furious battle, and men yelled, and swords 

Shocked upon swords and shields. A prince’s banner 

Wavered, then staggered backward, hemmed by foes. 

A craven hung along the battle’s edge, 

And thought, “Had I a sword of keener stee]— 

That blue blade that the king’s son bears,—but this 

Blunt thing—!” he snapt and flung it from his hand, 

And lowering crept away and left the field. 

Then came the king’s son, wounded, sore bestead, 

And weaponless, and saw the broken sword, 

Hilt-buried in the dry and trodden sand, 

And ran and snatched it, and with battle-shout 

Lifted afresh, he hewed his enemy down 

And saved a great cause that heroic day. 1s 
Epwarp Rowuanp SILL 


EXERCISE 5 


Commit to memory these three little masterpieces. 


LESSON 6 ~ 


PUNCTUATION 
The Period: 
1. Place.a period after every declarative and every 
imperative sentence. 
2. Place a period after every abbreviation. 


184 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


The Question Mark: 


Place a question mark after every interrogative 
sentence. 


The Exclamation Point: 


Place an exclamation point after all exclamatory 
sentences and expressions. 


’ The Apostrophe: 


1. The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of 
letters; as, Don’t wait; it’s six o’clock. 

2. The apostrophe is used to distinguish the posses- 
sive case; as, birds’ nests; Ned’s horse. 

3. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters, 
figures, and characters; as, 2’s, *’s, t’s. 


When it is necessary to divide a word at the end of 
a line, make the division between two syllables and 
place a hyphen at the end of the line. (See sentences 
2 and 3 on page 185.) Never place a hyphen. at the 
beginning of a line. 

Do not divide a word of one syllable. Do not divide 
plurals formed by adding s or es to the singular (bushes, 
not bush-es). Do not divide a word so that a syllable 
of one letter will be left standing by itself at the end 
or at the beginning of a line (among, not a-mong; many, 
not man-y). If you are not sure of the proper division 
of any word, consult a good dictionary. _ 3 


EXERCISE 6 


Write these sentences, placing periods, question marks, ex- 
clamation points, and apostrophes where they belong. Tell 
why each mark is used. 


VARIETY IN SENTENCES 185 


1. Who killed Cock Robin” 
2. ‘What on earth are you a-doin”’ asked the man, grasp- 
ing the collar of my jacket. 
3. “Hullo heres Tom Bailey’? shouted Pepper Whit- 
comb. 
4. In Milwaukee, Wis, I met a man whose home had been 
in Birmingham, Ala, for many years 
5. What word is there half of which is ps 
6. Doesnt it seem strange that we have had no word from 
Dr. Morris : 
7. Take more pains in making your 5s and your 7s 
8. Is this Sams reel. No, its yours 
9. “Well, I dont say so, do I”’ growled the cockswain 
“What I say is, when”’ 
10. ‘When by the powers”’ cried Silver. “Well, now, if you 
want to know, Ill tell you when”’ 


Lt 


LESSON 7 
VARIETY IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 


A letter or a composition sounds much better if the 
sentences are varied in length and in form, or structure. 
Variety of sentence structure may be secured in many 
ways. | 

An adjective, an adverb, or a participle may be ex- 
panded into a phrase or a clause.’ 


1Tf the class has not studied the kinds of clauses and sentences. 
mentioned in this lesson, the teacher may supply the simple ex- 
plantion that is needed or may refer the pupils to pages 72, 76, 82, 
and 88 in Parr ONE. 


136 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


A phrase or a clause may be contracted into an ad- 
jective, an adverb, or a participle. 


An Irish adventurer rose to a high place in the country. 

An adventurer from Ireland rose to a high place fn the 
country. 

An adventurer who came from Ireland rose to a high place 
in the country. _ 


He did the work carefully. 
He did the work with care. 


We returned at sunset. 
We returned when the sun was setting. 


When he saw me, he stopped. 
Seeing me, he stopped. 


When night came on, we gave up the chase. 
Night coming on, we gave up the chase. 


A substantive clause may be contracted. . 


That he was brave cannot be doubted. 
His bravery cannot be doubted. 


An adverbial clause may be contracted by the omis- 
sion of words. 


When you are right, go ahead. 
When right, go ahead. 


An adverbial clause may sometimes be changed to an 
adjective clause or phrase, or to an adjective. 


This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. 
This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. 

This man, without friends, is to be pitied. 

This friendless man is to be pitied. 


VARIETY. IN SENTENCES 187 


One sentence may sometimes be expanded into two 


or more. 
Two or more sentences may sometimes be contracted 
into one. 


Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man. 
Time and tide wait for no man. 


A compound sentence may be formed out of simple 
sentences. 

A compound sentence may be contracted to a simple 
sentence, or it may be changed into a complex sentence. 


Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of 


themselves. 
If you take care of the minutes, the hours will take care 


of themselves. 


He is rough, but he is kind. 
He is rough but kind. 


They have nothing to wear. 
They have nothing which they can wear. 


Variety is gained by changing the voice of the verb. 


The porter refused him admittance. 
He was refused admittance by the porter. 


EXERCISE 7 


Contract the following sentences, and tell what change you 
have made in the structure of each: 
1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands of 
their bodies. ey 
2. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise 
again. 


188 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


3. Error, if he is wounded, writhes in pain and dies 
among his worshipers. 


4. Washington retreated from Long Island because his 
mek was outnumbered. 


. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundiaas before it 
crosses the Atlantic. 


6. If we use household words, we shall be better under- 
stood. 


7. He grew rich because he attended to business. 


8. Philip II built the Armada that he might conquer 
England. 

9. He is foolish because he leaves school so early in life. 
10. We are pained when we hear God’s name used irrever- 
~ ently. ; | 

11. Luther died where he was born. 
12. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 
13. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 


14. Aisop knew that it was not safe to tell kings their 
faults, and so he hid his meanings in fables. 


15. Because he was witty, and because he had shrewd 
common sense, A’sop became a welcome visitor at the courts 
of kings. 


LESSON 8 
VARIETY IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 


EXERCISE 8 


Expand the following sentences by changing the adjectives, 
participles, and infinitive phrases into clauses:! 
‘For explanation of the infinitive phrase, absolute phrase, and 


the voice of the verb, in connection with this lesson and the next 
one, see pages 55, 67, ‘and 122 in Part ONE. 


VARIETY IN SENTENCES 189 


i A rolling stone gathers no moss. 


2. The dog, to gain his private ends, 
Went mad, and bit the man. 


8. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the 
advantages of their native land. 


4. I have many things to tell you. 
25. He had an ax to grind. / 
6. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 2. 


- Contract the substantive clauses in these sentences: 
Pre That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious 
. fact. 
_ 8. Everybody thinks that he is a great leader. 
J. I believe that he is a foreigner. 


410. The governor ordered that the prisoner should be set 2 


free. 


11. They believe that taxation without representation is 


unjust. - 
512. Ulysses hoped that by his trick he might escape going + 
to the Trojan war. 
13. We are all anxious that we may make a Bho impres- / 
sion. 
£14. He does not know whom he should send. 


4715. The effect. of looking upon the sun is that the eye is 
blinded. 


Vary the following sentences by changing the voice of the verb: 
‘16. The people of Athens named their city for Athena, 
goddess of wisdom. 


17. Harvey, an English physician, discovered the circu- 
lation of the blood. 


+g 


190 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


18. His eloquence struck them dumb. 

19. They musi allow us the privilege of thinking for ours 
selves. 

90. All his friends laughed at him. 

21. He was offered a pension by the government. | 0 
22. That artful fellow has imposed upon us all. ” 
23. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic.| ~ 


24. He dropped the matter there and did not refer to it | 2 
afterward. 


., 25. He was taken care of by his friends. 


LESSON 9 
VARIETY IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 


EXERCISE 9 


Contract these compound sentences to simple sentences: 


1. Fresh air is a good medicine and sleep is a good 
medicine. | 

2. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of 
the Almighty is around us, the spirit of the Almighty 1S 
above. us. | 

3. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but— 
it should not be the web. 

4. Was movable type in use before Caxton’s time, or 
was it not in use before that time? 

5. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, | 

and he has justly been likened to him. ee 

6. It was his kindly face that attracted me; it was not . 
his clothes or his manner that attracted me. 


VARIETY IN SENTENCES 191 


Change these compound sentences to complex sentences with- 
out materially changing the sense: 
7. Do not allow yourself to become angry and you wiil 
soon find that you have little cause-to be angry. 
—%®. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 
-9 I heard you wished to see me, and I lost no time in 
coming. } . 
_10. He was a man of great intellect, but he always had 
patience with lesser intellects. 
Il. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. 


12. He found that he could not escape, and so he sur- 
rendered. 


_#13. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to 
meet us. 


Expand the participles, the absolute phrases, and the infini- 
tive phrases into clauses: 


14. The child, having worn himself out in play, threw 
himself on the grass. 


“td. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are 
cool in summer. 


16. Writing carefully, you will be sure to write legibly. 


“27. The automobile having broken down, we walked six 
miles to the nearest farmhouse. 


-~*I8. The bridges having been Swept away, we returned. 
19. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. 
20. He is a fool to waste his time. 

21. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. 

22. He does not know where to go. 


192 PART TWO: COMPOSITION Gt 


LESSON 10 
STUDY OF A POEM 


CoLUMBUS 


Behind him lay the gray Azores, 
Behind the Gates of Hercules; 

Before him not the ghost of shores, 
Before him only shoreless seas. 

The good mate said: “Now must, we pray, 
For lo! the very stars are gone. 

Brave Admiral,-speak; what shall I say?” 
“Why, say: ‘Sail on! sail,on! and on!” 


“My men grow mutinous day by day; 
My men grow ghastly wan and weak.” 
The stout mate thought of home; a spray 
Of salt wave washed his swarthy cheek. 
‘What shall I say, brave Admiral, say, 

If we sight naught but seas at dawn?” 
“Why, you shall say at break of day: 
‘Soil on! sail on! sail on! and on!” 


They sailed and sailed as winds might blow, 
Until at last the blanched mate said: 
'“Why, now not even God would know 
Should I and all my men fall dead. 
These very winds forget their way, 
For God from these dread seas is gone. 
Now speak, brave Admiral, speak and say—” 
He said: ‘Sail on! sail on! and on!” 


STUDY OF A POEM 193 


They sailed. They sailed. Then spake the mate: 
“This mad sea shows his teeth to-night. 
He curls his lip, he lies in wait, 
With lifted teeth as if to bite! 
Brave Admiral, say but one good word: 
What shall we do when hope is gone?” 
The words leapt like a flaming sword: 
“Sail on! sail on! sail-on! and on!” 


Then, pale and worn, he paced his deck, 

And peered through darkness. Ah, that night 
Of all dark nights! And then a speck— 

A light! a light! At last a light! 
It grew, a starlit’ flag unfurled! 

It grew to be Time’s burst of dawn. 
He gained a world; he gave that world 

Its grandest lesson: “On! sail on!” 

JOAQUIN MILLER 


EXERCISE 10 


Where are the Azores? What is meant by the Gates of 
Hercules? 

“The very stars are gone.” As the sailors got farther out 
into the Atlantic Ocean, the appearance of the heavens 
changed, and some of the familiar stars were no longer 
visible. 

What is the meaning of mutinous? Ghastly? Wan? 
_ What part of speech are these words? Give your reasons. 

What is the meaning of swarthy? Blanched? 

“These very winds forget their way.’ The ships were now 
in the region of the trade winds, which were strange to the 
sailors. | 

Explain lines 2, 3, and 4 in the fourth stanza. 


4194 PAR? TWO: COMPOSITION 


Explain line 5 in the fifth stanza. Explain line 6 in the 
fifth stanza. 

Read the poem so as to bring out its full thought and 
feeling. Commit it to memory. 


LESSON 11 
PARAGRAPHS; OUTLINES 


Newton AND His Dog DIAMOND 


Did you never hear the story of Newton and his little dog 
Diamond? When Newton was fifty years old, and had been 
hard at work more than twenty years studying the theory 
of light, he went out of his chamber one day, leaving his 
little dog asleep before the fire. 

On the table lay a heap of manuscript papers, containing . 
a record of all the discoveries that Newton had made during 
those twenty years. When his master was gone, up rose 
little Diamond, jumped upon the table, and overthrew the 
fighted candle. The papers immediately caught fire. 

Just as the destruction was completed, Newton opened 
the chamber door and perceived that the labors of twenty 
years were reduced to a heap of ashes. T here stood little - 
Diamond, the author of all the mischief. Almost any other 
man would have sentenced the dog to immediate death. 
But Newton patted him on the head with his usual kindness, 
although grief was at his heart. “O Diamond, Diamond!”’ 

exclaimed he, “thou little knowest the mischief thou hast 
~ done.” , 

NaTHANIEL HawTHORNE, from Biographical Storves 


This story is divided into three paragraphs. A 
paragraph is a group of sentences expressing what we - 


PARAGRAPHS ; OUTLINES 195 


have to say on a single division of the subject. You 
will see that there are three divisions of this story: 


1. Newton and his dog. 
2. The overturning of the candle. 
3. Newton’s discovery of his loss. 


These three headings, or topics, form the outline of 
the story. Whenever you write anything, it is well first 
to make an outline. In making it, see that the topics 
melude all you have to say; that no one of them repeats 
another, even in part; and that they are properly 
arranged. If you follow the outline as you write, it 
will help you to arrange your composition in good order 
and to write good paragraphs. 

Suppose you are to write the story of “A Day's 
Fishing.” You may make an outline like this, if it 
_ fits the facts you are to tell: 


1. The start. 

2. Arrival at the fishing place. 
3. Our catch. 

4. The return home. 


In writing, place the sentences in their natural order; 
admit no sentence into a paragraph that does not help 
in developing its topic; and indent the first line of each 


paragraph. - 
EXERCISE 11 


I. Think of something that you have read, or something 
that has happened to you or to some one whom you know. 
Tell the story of this occurrence. Before you write the story, | 


196 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


make an outline. In your story make a paragraph about 
each of the headings, or topics, in your outline. 


II. Tell orally the story that you have written. You may 
use your outline as a guide in telling the story. 


LESSON 12 
ORAL COMPOSITION; A TALK 


The first thing necessary in writing or talking 1s to 
have something to say. Learn all you can about your 
subject. Read about it. If you are to talk on a sub- 
ject that you can learn about by observation, go to 
see the thing that will help you. 

Then organize your material. Make an outline. 
Your talk, no matter how short it may be, must have 
a beginning, a middle, and an end. Arrange your tacts — 
or statements in good order. Some of them should be 
placed before certain others in order to make your 
talk clear and forcible. Keep the outline brief and 
clear, so that it will help you if you hold it in your 
hand while talking. 

Practice your talk before you make it in class. Stand 
up and try to say what you have to say just as 
you will say it in the classroom. If you make a mis- 
take, don’t stop and go back to correct it. Go straight 
through your speech or story; then go over it all a 
second time and correct the errors you made at first. 
Don’t try to memorize the language to be used. Re-. 
member that the first consideration is to be interesting, — 


ORAL COMPOSITION ; A TALK 197 


to hold the attention of your audience. This is more 
important than avoiding errors in language. 

Stand straight and look at your audience. Be simple 
and natural. Let your voice fall at the end of sentences, 
unless they are questions. Articulate clearly; sound 
the syllable ing fully; say walking, not walkin’. Do 
not string several sentences together with and-a or 
then-a. 


EXERCISE 12 


I. Select some brief humorous anecdote and tell it to the 
class. It is not necessary to have a new anecdote; it is more 
important that it be well selected and well told. You may 
get your story from the humorous department of some 
newspaper or magazine. Select a story in which some- 
thing happens, not merely a witty; remark or a play upon 
words. 


II. Tell an incident from the life of some great man. You 
can find good stories in Franklin’s Autobiography, or any 
life of Lincoln, or the biography of some other man who in- 
terests you. . 


III. Prepare and relate in class one th the follwing stories 
from the Bible: 


' 


Jacob’s Dream 

Joseph is Sold into Slavery 

Joseph’s Interpretation of Pharaoch’s Dream 
David and Goliath 

Ruth and Naomi : 

Belshazzar and the Handwriting on the Wall 


198 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


LESSON 13 


DICTATION; PARAGRAPHS 
EXERCISE 13 


I. Study the following paragraph and write rt from dictation: 


A few Sundavs ago I stood on a hill in Washington. My 
heart thrilled as I looked on the towering marble of my 
country’s Capitol, and a mist gathered in my eyes as, standing 
there, I thought of the powers there assembled and the re- 
sponsibilities there centered—its President, its Congress, 
its courts, its gathered treasure, its army, its navy, and its 
sixty millions of citizens. It seemed to me the best and 
mightiest sight that the sun could find in its wheeling course 
—this majestic home of a republic that has taught the world 
its best lesson of liberty. I felt that if wisdom and justice 
and honor abided therein, the world would stand indebted 
to this temple on which my eyes rested. 

Henry Wooprin GRADY 


Il. Select a few paragraphs from your textbook in history 
or some other subject. Study the paragraphs. Does each one 
have a single main idea? 

Write, for each paragraph, a sentence that expresses briedy 
its main idea. Will this plan help you in studying a lesson? 
Does it not tend to fix in your mind the most it 
statements of the lesson? 


LESSON 14 
DESCRIPTION 


Toby was the most utterly shabby, mean-looking cur I 
ever beheld. He had not one good feature except his teeth 


DESCRIPTION 199 


and eyes, and his bark—if that can be called a feature. He 
was not ugly enough to be interesting; his color was black 
and white, his shape leggy and clumsy. 

He was of the bull terrier variety. He had a ieee skull, 
and a rich bark as of a dog three times his size, and a tail 
which I never saw equaled. It was of immense girth and not 
short, equal throughout like a policeman’s baton. The 
machinery for working it was of great power, and acted in 
a way—as far as I have been able to eat original, 
We called it his ruler. 

When he wished to get into the house, he first whined 
gently, then growled, then gave a short bark; and then 
there came a resounding, mighty stroke which shook the 
house. This, after much study and watching, we found was 
done by his bringing the entire length of his solid tail flat, 
upon the door, with a sudden and vigorous stroke. 

Toby was a dog of great moral excellence—affectionate, 
faithful, honest up to his light, with an odd humor as peculiar 
and as strong as his tail. My father, in his reserved way, was 
very fond of him, and there must have been funny scenes 
with them, for we heard bursts of laughter issuing from his 
study when they two were by themselves. 

Dr. JoHn Brown, from Rab and his Friends (abridged) 


EXERCISE 14 


I. Note that the author gives you many details which 
help you to picture in your mind the dog—his color, his eyes, 
his tail. The author gives also details that show you the 
- general character of the dog, such as his original method of 
getting some one to open the door, and his affection for his 
master. What comparison is used in describing the dog? 

Make an outline of the description of Toby. How many 
topics will be needed? 

Read again the first sentence of the description of the 


Spa eet 


200 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


dog. Does it express the main thought of the first paragraph? 
Does it agree with the first topic you selected for your out- 
line? 


A sentence which expresses in a general way the topic 
of a paragraph is called a topic sentence. 


II. Write a description of some dog, cat, horse, or other 
animal that you have had a chance to observe carefully. 
Make the description about as long as that of Toby. Try 
to write so that a person reading your description would have 
in his mind a good picture of the animal you are describing. 
If you can make comparisons that will aid the description, 
as Dr. John Brown does, use them. 


LESSON 15 


PUNCTUATION 


EXERCISE 15 


Study carefully the punctuation in the first two paragraphs 
of the description of Toby. Write these paragraphs from 
dictation. 


LESSON 16 
PICTURE STUDY AND DESCRIPTION 


On the opposite page is a reproduction of a painting 
by Sir Edwin Landseer, a distinguished English painter 
whose works are famous and popular. Landseer ex- 
celled in the painting of dogs. This picture represents 
a fine type of Newfoundland. These dogs take natu- 


ALQINOG ANVWOPY GHL 4O YAAWNaYL GaHHSINDNILSIC, V 


WoL, 


qoospuvy Aq Sut}ureg 3} 


NARRATION 201 


rally to the water. Their size, strength, and ability as 
swimmers have enabled them to rescue many people 
from drowning. It is this fact about the Newfoundland 
that caused Landseer to paint this dog in the surround- 
ings we see in the picture and to give it the title, 
‘‘A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society.” 


EXERCISE 16 


Learn all that you can from observation, conversation, 
and reading about Newfoundland dogs. Write a description 
of the dog in Landseer’s painting. 


LESSON 17 


NARRATION 


A Narrow ESCAPE 


I must stop here to tell the reason why I would not convict 
the meanest thief on circumstantial evidence. I would rather 
let a thousand go free than risk with one what I risked and 
shudder yet to think of. There had been some public ex- 
citement that summer about mad dogs, especially spitz 
dogs. .. . There was one always prowling about the Jot behind 
my office, through which the way led to my boarding house, 
and when it snapped my leg in passing one day, I determined 
to kill it in the interest of public safety. I sent my office 
boy out to buy a handful of buckshot, and when he brought 
it, set about loading both barrels of the fowling-piece that 
stood in my office... 

It was unlawful to shoot within the city limits, and I sent 
the boy up to the station to tell. the captain not to mind if he 


202 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


heard shooting around—I was going out foradog. With that 


I set forth upon my quest. 
The dog was there; but he escaped before I could ae a 


shot at him. He Beet growling and snapping among the 
weeds, and at last ran into a large inclosed lot in which were 


stacks of lumber and junk and many hiding-places. I kaew 
that he could not get out, for the board fence was high and 
tight. So I went in and shut the door after me, and I had him. 

I should have said before, that among my enemies was a 
worthless fellow, a hanger-on of the local political machine, 
who had in the afternoon been in the office annoying me with 
his loud and boisterous talk. He was drunk, and as some 
people had called to see me, I put him out. He persisted in 
coming back, and I finally told him, in the hearing of a 
dozen persons, to go about his business or some serious harm. 
would befall him. If I connected any idea with it, it was to: 
call a policeman; but I left them to infer something worse, I 
suppose. ... 


It was twilight when I began my still hunt for the spitz in. 


the lumber lot, and the outlines of things were more or less 


vague; but I followed the dog about until at last I made 
him out, standing on a pile of boards a little way off. It was: 
my chance. I raised the gun quickly and took aim. I had 


both barrels cocked and my finger on the trigger, when some- 


thing told me quite distinctly not to shoot, to put down my 


gun and go closer. I did so, and found, not the dog as f 
thought, but my enemy whom I had threatened an hour or 
two before, asleep at full length on the stack with his coat 
rolled under his head for a pillow. It was his white shirt 
bosom which I had mistaken in the twilight for the spitz 
dog. : 
Jacos A. Rus, from The Making of an American 


The series of dots in this selection indicate the omission of parts 
of the original narrative. 


. - 


SOME COMMON ERRORS 203 
EXERCISE 17 


Read this story carefully and make an outline of it. 
Reteli the story orally or in writing, using your own words. 
What is circumstantial evidence? 

In the fourth paragraph, Mr. Riis says that he should have 
told about his enemy earlier. Do you think it would have 
improved the story if he had done so? Tell the story and 
explain the incident of the quarrel immediately after the 
reference to circumstantial evidence. See if you think the 
story 1s improved by that arrangement. 


LESSON 18 
SOME COMMON ERRORS 


Our language is a matter of habit. Incorrect ex- 
pressions are often used by people who know better 
but who formed the habit of using the wrong expression 
before they knew the right one. In such a ease, one 
-rnust break the habit of using the wrong form and must 
establish the habit of using the right form. _ 


EXERCISE 18 


SL. Answer these questions, using he (or him) and I (or me). 
Make your answer a complete sentence. 

1. Who is ready for a good time? 

2. Whom shall I aliow to go out? 

3. Between whom shall I divide this candy? 


4. For whom are these letters? 


204 


PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


Answer these questions, using complete sentences. Give both 
negative and affirmative answers. 


. Did you see Alice? 

. Did you go to any baseball games last spent is 
. Did you do that? 

. Have you no pencil? 

. Does Henry play baseball? 


Write from dictation, filling the blanks with the proper form 
of the verb gwen at the end of the sentence: 


10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 


Has the bell 
I have 
We have 


2? (ring) 
this way before. (go) 


that circus. (see) 

We had often that horse. (drive) 
I had you aletter. (write) 

The tree has (fall) 


Full the blanks with the correct form: 


16. 
Le 
18. 
Lo: 
20. 
21. 
22. 


Many people ——- there. (was, were) 
You 
Has George 


there, Harry. (was, were) 


yet? (come, came) 


people are going. (them, those) 

It —— mine. (ain’t, isn’t) 

own lunch. (his, their) 

the members of the base= 


Every boy brought 
He divided the cookies 


ball team. (between, among) 


Between is used of two persons or things, among of more than two. 


Correct all these expressions: 


~ 23. Don’t she look real nice? 
24. He must have took the book. 


REASONING FROM OBSERVATION 205 


25. Who did you go with? 

26. They saw we girls there. 

27. That there book is mine. 

28. This here book is yours. 

29. Where is he at? 

30. He wanted to read it for hisself. 
31. He didn’t do nothing. 

32. They had ought to do better. 
33. The king he went to battle. 

34. The morning was kind of cloudy. 
35. I taken my book home. 


II. Study the Errors or Spercu on page 296, 


LESSON 19 
REASONING FROM OBSERVATION 


A Hasitr of ANGLEWORMS 


Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost 
motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I 
have occasionaily noticed the same fact with worms kept in 
pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows 
their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rub- 
bish over the burrows is suddenly removed, the end of the 
worm’s body may very often be seen rapidly retreating. 

This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruc- 
tion to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain 
seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the 
lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an 
astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do 
unless the worms lay close to the surface. 

It is not prebable that worms behave in this manner for 


206 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long 
time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for 
the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we find 
that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, 
apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close 
contact with the cold, damp earth. 

CHARLES DARWIN 


EXERCISE 19 


1. Make an outline of the above selection, giving a topic 
for each paragraph. 

2. Prepare a talk, telling in your own words what Darwin 
said about angleworms. 

8 What kind of sentence is each of those in the selection 
above? 

4. Try to sum up in a sentence the essential thought of the 
selection. 


LESSON 20 
TELLING THE NEWS FROM THE PAPER 


Much that we talk about with interest and profit is 
based on what we read in newspapers. Most of the 
great questions on which we should be informed are 
discussed in the papers. Along with these things, there 
are accounts of crimes and follies that we do well not to 
dwell upon. The art of reading the papers so as to get 
quickly the news, facts, and discussions that are 
worth while, without encumbering our minds with | 
what is base or frivolous, is an art that all should culti- 


LETTER PAPER AND ENVELOPES 207 


vate. To select some of the most interesting things in 
the papers and to tell them orally will help you to ac- 
quire this art and will furnish a good drill in telling 
things well. 

Be eareful to select a newspaper article that is not 
too long, that is interesting, and that is appropriate 
because it deals with something which a group of young 
people would be glad to discuss. Read the article care- 
fully until you are thoroughly familiar with it. Make 
a brief outline if you choose, and try to sum up in 4 
sentence the substance of the article. Then stand and 
talk about your topic just as you expect to do when 
you come to class. Be sure that you do not leave out 
important details. Let your voice fall at the end of sen- 
tences. Do not string your sentences together with 
and’s. 


EXERCISE 20 


In accordance with the directions above, prepare to tell in 
class the contents of an appropriate article which you have 
read in a daily or weekly paper. If the article selected con- 
tains any word of which you do not know the meaning or the 
- pronunciation, look it up in the dictionary. 


LESSON -21 
LETTER PAPER AND ENVELOPES 


Letters should be written on paper of good quality, 
preferably unruled. It takes practice to write in a 
straight line on unruled paper after using the ruled 


208 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


paper on which most school exercises are written; but 
it is an ability well worth cultivating. Unless a type- 
writer is used, letters should be written with pen and 
ink, and the writing should be neat and legible. A 
pencil should never be used for writing a letter, except 
in an emergency. There should be, on the left of the 
sheet, an even margin about three quarters of an inch 
wide, though the width may vary according to the size 
of the paper. 

Letter paper is of various sizes. Full-size letter sheets 
are 8+ by 11 inches, and nearly all business corre- 
spondence is written on paper of these dimensions. 
Sometimes letter sheets are half this length and some- 
times two thirds of it. Folded sheets for social and 
friendly correspondence vary considerably in size and 
shape, but a favorite size is about 95 by 6% inches. 
The envelope should be slightly larger than the sheet: 
when folded according to the directions given on 
page 268. 


To the Teacher. It is a good plan to show the class specimens 
of the different forms of letter paper and envelopes that are in 
good use. Show, also, examples of well-written letters—either 
those of pupils or those of adults—using both handwritten and 
typewritten letters. Envelopes correctly addressed should be 
exhibited. 


EXERCISE 21 


On unruled paper, copy the following letter. Copy the 
direction on the envelope either on a real envelope or in 2 
rectangle ruled to correspond with the size and shape of a 
business envelope. Soe, 


LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 209 


214 South Third Street, 
London, Ohio, 
November 28, 1917. 
Perry Muson Company, 
Commonwealth Avenue and St. Paul Street, 
Boston, Massachusetts. 


Gentlemen: 


Inclosed find a post-office money order for $2.00, 
for which please send “The Youth’s Companion” to my 
address for one year, veginning with the next issue. 

Yours truly, 
John T. Moad 


After 5 days return to 
John T. Moad, 214 South Third Street, 
London, Ohio 


Perry Mason Company 
Commonwealth Avenue and St. Paul Street 
Boston 


Massachusetts 


LESSON 22 
LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 


Letters of friendship, or social letters, should be writ- 
ten in a conversational style, for their purpose is to 
take the place of a talk with your friend or relative. 


210 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


Letters should always be written with careful atten- 
tion to penmanship, correct forms of speech, punctu- 
ation, and paragraphing. Since much of our writing is 
letters, our habits of composition will generally be 
such as we form in letter writing. 

The following letter, written many years ago by 
Washington Irving to his sister, is a good example of a 
letter of friendship. Nearly a century ago Irving made 
a tour through a region which is now thickly populated 
but which at that time was the western frontier of the 
United States. 


Independence, Missouri, 


Sept. 26, 1832. 
My dear Sister, 

We arrived at this place the day before yes- 
terday, after nine days’ traveling on horseback from St. 
Louis. Our journey has been a very interesting one, leading 
across fine prairies and through noble forests, dotted here 
and there by farms and log houses, at which we found rough 
but wholesome and abundant fare and very civil treatment. 
Many parts of these prairies of Missouri are extremely beau- 
tiful, resembling cultivated countries embellished with parks — 
and groves, rather than the savage rudeness of the wilderness, 

Yesterday I went on a deer hunt in the vicinity of this 
place, which led me through some scenery that wanted only 
a castle, or a gentleman’s seat here and there interspersed, 
to have equaled some of the most celebrated park scenery of 
England. | 

The fertility of this western country is truly astonishing. 
The soil is like that of a garden, and the luxuriance and 
beauty of the forests exceed any other that I have seen. 
We have gradually been advancing, however, toward rougher . 
and rougher life, and are now at a little straggling frontier ~ 


WRITING QUOTATIONS O11 


village that has only been five years in existence. From 
here, in the course of a day or two, we take our departure 
southwardly, and shall soon bid adieu to civilization and en- 
camp at night in tents. The climax will be our. expedition 
with the Osages to their hunting grounds. 
Affectionately your brother, 
WASHINGTON IRVING 
(This letter has been abridged.) 


EXERCISE 22 


Imagine that you are away on a journey; write a letter 
to a friend or relative. You may describe the scenes of some 
excursion you have actually taken; or the trip may be wholly 
imaginary, in which case you will draw upon your knowledge 
of geography or your reading to make an interesting letter. 


LESSON 23 


WRITING QUOTATIONS 


A direct quotation is one that gives the exact words of 
another. 

A question quoted in the exact words of the Perla 
is called a direct question. 


George said to Charles, “The workmen will soon mend 


the fence.” 
Cain asked, ‘‘Am I my brother’s keeper?” 


Single marks inclose a quotation within a quotation; 
as, 

The incorrectness of the dispatches led Bismarck to de- 
clare, “It will soon be said, ‘He lies like the telegraph.’”’ 


212 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical ex- 
pression, each part of the quotation is inclosed with 
quotation marks. The second part of the divided quo- 
tation does not begin with a capital letter unless the 
first word begins a new sentence or is a word that is 
always capitalized; as, | 


“T would rather be right,’ said Clay, ‘“‘than be Presi- 
dent.”’ 


An indirect quotation is one that gives the thought, 
but not the exact words, of another; as, 


George told Charles that the workmen would soon mend ~ 
the fence. 


An indirect question is one which is referred to as a 
question but is not directly asked or quoted. It is not 
followed by an interrogation point. 


Cain asked whether he was his brother’s keeper. 


The direct quotation (or question) is set off by the 
comma, begins with a capital ietter, and is inclosed 
within quotation marks. The indirect quotation (or 
question) is not generally set off by the comma, does 
not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not 
inclosed within quotation marks. 

No: comma is used after the interrogation point in a 
direct question; as, 


“Am I my brother’s keeper?” asked Cain. 


If the direct quotation (or question) is introduced 
in a formal way, it is preceded by the colon; as, 


WRITING QUOTATIONS 213 


Nathan’s words to David were these: “‘Thou art the 
man.”’ 


He put the question thus: ‘Can you do it?” 


-In quoting a question, the interrogation point must 
stand within the quotation marks, but when a question 
contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, 


He asked, ‘‘What are you living for?” 
May we not find ‘‘sermons in stones’’? 


A similar rule applies to the exclamation point and 
quotation marks when used together. The exclamation 
point is written within the quotation marks if it belongs 
with the words quoted. 


In writing a conversation, we make a separate para- 
graph of each speech, together with whatever explana- 
ory words may accompany it; as, 


“Alas! gentlemen,” cried Rip, somewhat dismayed, “T 
am a poor, quiet man, a native of the place, and a loyal 
subject of the King, God bless him!’ : 

Here a general shout burst from the bystanders—‘‘A 
Tory! a Tory! A spy! arefugee! Hustle him! Away witb 
ries 5 

It was with great difficulty that the self-important man in 
the cocked hat restored order. 


EXERCISE 23 


I. Write five sentences containing direct quotations. Change 


___ these to the indirect form. 


214 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


II. Study the following sentences and be able to write them 
from dictation: 


1. ‘Keep indoors, men,” said the captain. “Ten to one, 
. this is a new trick.” 

2. “What is the capital of Peru?” was the first question. 

3. Emerson said, ‘‘ Hitch your wagon to a star.”’ 


4. “That niece of yours is the most remarkable girl I 
have seen in years,” said Mr. Burch when the door was 
closed. 


5. “Good,” thought I; ‘here comes the waiter with the 
bill.”’ 

6. “It is the assembly of the tribe,” said one of the 
foresters, ‘the great night of the council.” 


7. Then Winfried’s voice rang out: “Hail, ye sons of 
the forest! A stranger claims the warmth of your fire in 
the winter night.” ; 


8. “Naught fear I,” said the boy, “neither darkness, 
nor the great bear, nor the were-wolf.”’ 


9. When Louis XVI heard that the Bastile had fallen, 
he exclaimed, “Why, this is a revolt!” 


10. “‘Sire,’’ was the reply, ‘‘it is a revolution!” 


LESSON 24 


PICTURE STUDY AND DESCRIPTION 
| EXERCISE 24 


Study carefully the painting by Dagnan-Bouveret, ‘At 
the Watering Trough.” Write a description of the scene por- 
trayed. 


PUNCTUATION; THE COMMA 215 


LESSON 25 
PUNCTUATION; THE COMMA 


Phrases and clauses are said to be in the usual or. 
natural order when they follow the words they modify. 

Phrases that are placed out of their natural order and 
thus made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with 
the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma. 
If the phrase is short or closely connected in thought 
with the word modified, it is not set off. 


Of the scenery of the Rhine, many travelers speak with 
enthusiasm. 


Between two mountains lies a fertile valley. 


An adverbial clause is set off by the comma when it 
precedes the word it modifies. 


As a man travels on in the journey of life, his objects of 
wonder daily diminish. 


Words or phrases in a series are separated from each 
other by commas unless all the conjunctions are 
expressed. 


Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, ay in the United 
States. 

Spring and summer and autumn and winter drifted past. 


In writing dates, we use the comma to separate the 
year from the month, or from the day of the month. 


Washington was born on February 22, 1732. 


4 


216 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


EXERCISE 25 


Punctuate the following sentences: 


1. He went at the urgent request of the stranger for the 
doctor. 

2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 

3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may 
be placed out of its natural order. 


4, New York on the contrary abounds in men of 
wealth. 


5. Thomas Edison was born in Ohio February 11, 1847. 
6. Edison is a great man.a wonderful genius. 
7. If you should ask him how he has become one of the 


foremost scientists ,he would probably tell you “By hard 
work.” 


8. We need short sharp quick direct word-pictures. 


9. Under such circumstances there is a tendency to look 
upon achievement in some of these directions as an end in 
itself. 

10. His spirit and his method will be as unconfined as the 
inaccessible mountains the great plains or the open sea. 


11. On the ninth of April 1682, La Salle in the name of 
King Louis of France took possession of the land which he 
called Louisiana. 


12. Washington said ,“‘T will raise a thousand men subsist 
them at my own expense and march with them at their head 
for the relief of Boston.” 


13. Every day of our lives on land or sea whether we will 
or not the air and the clouds and the sky surround us. 


14. To the first settlers the red man was an object of curi- 
osity. a 


THE PARTS OF A LETTER 217 


LESSON 26 
DICTATION; ARRANGEMENT OF RHYMING VERSES 
| EXERCISE 26 


Write the following stanzas from dictation. Notice that 
there are four lines in each stanza, and that the second and 
fourth lines are indented. You see that the first and. third 
lines rhyme, and that the second and fourth rhyme. Lines 
that rhyme with each other are indented the same distance. 


The curfew tolls the knell-of parting day, 
The lowing herd wind slowly. o’er the lea, 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 


Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, 
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. 
THOMAS GRAY 


LESSON 27 
THE PARTS OF A LETTER 


The parts of a letter are (1) the heading, (2) the in- 
side address, (3) the salutation, (4) the body of the 
letter, (5) the complimentary close, and (6) the signa- 
ture. In friendly letters the inside address may be 
omitted. The address on the envelope is called the 
-superscription. sr 


V 


218 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


OUTLINE OF THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 


tieading 10 


oer ere eoer oer eer oee eee ees evose 


cot?eoeeeeeeeeeeoevreee ee eee 


eeereeeeev ee ere eee ee oer eee 


00 010, 0 6 © 00 © 0 6 © & 28 oe) 2 © 6 0:58) sd ¢ 0 01 6 6! a6 0) 6 © Be @ ssp) inl eel ier enae 
Wwe 8 ob 8 ee 8 we en we 6 ow 88 8 te 6 6 8 6 6% 6 6 6 6 8 wt ww 6 ew ee a 6 os wide Ben teens inion ecelE 
Geese wore ne ee oe 6 eo he Oe 8 Oo we ROM HU OBO ee P88 Ss oe es 6 se 6s 6 se eee ne eee 
so eeisereecocec ee eee e ee ee eee ets ese bene ene 6 6 6 6 © 6 © es ee om Sse ea Sener S 


ee 


| Stamp 


coe ee me we we wee ww 


os eee ee ee eee 


STUDY OF A SPEECH 219 


EXERCISE 27 


Write a short business letter illustrating all the parts 
described in this lesson. Use the letter on page 209 as a 
model. 


LESSON 28 
STUDY OF A SPEECH 


A TRIBUTZ TO THE Doa 


The best friend a man has in this world may turn against 
him and become his enemy. His son or daughter whom he 
has reared with loving care may prove ungrateful. Those 
who are nearest and dearest to us—those whom we trust 
with our happiness and our good name—may become traitors 
to their faith. The money that a man has he may lose; 
it flies away from him, perhaps when he needs it most. A 
man’s reputation may be sacrificed in a moment of ill-con- 
sidered action. The people who are prone to fall on their 
knees to do us honor when success is with us may be the first 
to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud 
upon our heads. The one absolute, unselfish friend that 
man can have in this selfish world—the one ‘that never de- 
serts him, the one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous 
—is his dog. | 

A man’s dog stands by him in prosperity and in poverty, 
in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold ground, 
where the wintry winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, 
if only he can be near his master’s side. He will kiss the hand 
that has no food to offer, he will lick the wounds and sores 
that come in encounter with the roughness of the world. 
He guards the sleep of his pauper master as if he were a 
prince. 


220 ° PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


When all other friends desert, he remains. When riches 
take wings and reputation falls to pieces, he is as constant in 
his love as the sun in its journey through the heavens. 
If fortune drives the master forth, an outcast in the world, 
friendless and homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher 
privilege than that of accompanying him to guard against 
danger, to fight against his enemies. And when the last 
scene of all comes, and Death takes the master in his em- 
brace, and his body is laid away in the cold ground, no matter 
if all other friends pursue their way, there by his graveside 
will the noble dog be found, his head between his paws, his 
_ eyes sad but open in alert watchfulness, faithful and true 
even to death. 

GEORGE GRAHAM VEST 


One of the finest tributes to man’s good friend, the 
dog, is the above speech, which was made by Senator 
Vest of Missouri in a lawsuit. Study it carefully and 
read it aloud. It will make a good declamation if com- 
mitted to memory. 


EXERCISE 28 


Plan, write, memorize, and deliver before the class a speech 
of about the length of Vest’s “Tribute to the Dog.” You 
may select your own subject. If you care to do so, you may 
compose a tribute to the horse, in imitation of Vest’s ‘‘ Tribute 
to the Dog.” 


LESSON 29 


THE USE OF ADJECTIVES 


In using adjectives, select those that exactly express 
your meaning. Do not use too many adjectives; and 
in describing any particular thing, be careful not to 


THE USE OF ADJECTIVES 221 


use two or more adjectives that have nearly the same 
meaning. In the following expression all the adjectives 
except the last should be omitted: 


A great, large, roomy, spacious hall: 


In the next expression only one of the adjectives is 
necessary: 


A stingy, miserly, close-fisted fellow. 


Careless persons and those with a small list of ad- 
jectives at command overwork and abuse such words 
as nice, awful, horrid, splendid, lovely. They say awful 
pens, horrid ink, splendid pie, etc. Pens and ink may 
be poor, useless, annoying, unsatisfactory, but awful 
and horrid are words too large and intense in meaning 
to apply to small or ordinary things. A disaster like 
the sinking of the Titanic or the San Francisco earth- 
quake is awful; a brutal crime may be a horrid or 
horrible affair. 

If you have the habit of overworking such words as 
awful, select words that may properly be substituted, 
and form the habit of using adjectives of exact 
meaning. 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound and a before words beginning with a consonant 
sound. 


EXAMPLES: an apple, an obedient child, a busy boy, 
an honor, a university. i 


Remember that them is a pronoun and should not 
be used in place of the adjective those. To say them 
books for those books is an erver. 


222 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


The order in which adjectives are placed is sometimes 
important. When two or mote adjectives modify a 
noun and there is any difference in their relative impor- 
tance, place nearest the noun the one most intimately 
connected with it. 

We say, ‘‘The beautiful blue aha is on not 
‘The blue beautiful sky is cloudless.” 

When the adjectives modifying a noun are of the 
same rank, place them where they will sound the best. 
This will usually be in the order of their ApoE the 
longest last; as, 


A fluent and entertaining speaker followed. 


EXERCISE 29 


I. Correct the errors in the use of adjectives and adverbs: 


. An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed. 

. Them two sentences should be corrected. 

. A young industrious man was hired. 

. The weather was awfully warm. 

The armchair was roomy and capacious. 

It was a lovely cake, but I paid a frightful price for it. 
. The boy was impudent and saucy. 

. The new stone large house was sold. 

. I have had terribly bad luck; I lost my fountain 


OMONOAP WH 


ue) 
© 
=) 


10. It was a horrid dinner that we had at that small 
hotel. , 


II. Bring to class as many adjectives as you can think of, or 
find, that mzy accurately be used with the following nouns. 


- 


STUDY OF A POEM 220 


Use your dictionaries to be sure that you have adjectives 
with the proper meanings. 


--1. George Washington 9. Books 
— 2. Watermelons 10. Benedict Arnold 
_—3. The G~sat War that be- 11. Labor 

gan in August, 1914 12. The starry heavens 


5. Mont Blane 13. Fishing 
5. Football 14. Winter : 
6. Basket ball 15. The American Indians 
7. Alcohol 16. Automobiles 
8. Corn 

LESSON 30 


STUDY OF A POEM 


THE CHAMBERED NAUTILUS 


This is the ship of pearl, which, poets feign, 
Sails the unshadowed main,— 
The venturous bark that flings 
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings 
In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings, 
And coral reefs lie bare 
Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair. 


Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl; 
Wrecked is the ship of pearl! 
And every chambered cell, 
Where its dim, dreaming life was wont to dwell 
As the frail tenant shaped his growing shell, j 
Before thee lies revealed,— | 
ts irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed! / 


224 PART TWO: COMPOSITION | 


Year after year beheld the silent toil 
That spread his lustrous coil; 
Still, as the spiral grew, 
He left the past year’s dwelling for the new, 
ae Stole with soft step its shining archway through, 
Rk. Built up its idle door, 
*>“Sfretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more. 
v 
“Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 
Child of the wandering sea, 
4 Cast from her lap, forlorn! 
From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 
Than ever Triton blew frora wreathéd horn! 
While on mine ear it rings, 
Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings :— 


Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, ° 
As the swift seasons roll! 
Leave thy low-vaulted past! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 
Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life’s unresting sea! 
OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES 


EXERCISE 30 


The nautilus is a small marine animal which floats upon 
the water. As it grows, it moves out of the old part of its 
shell into the new and larger part, and seals up the compart- 
ment it has vacated. This process it repeats from time to 
time. 

Siren. A sea-nymph who, by her sweet singing, lures 
sailors to destruction. 

Irised: Colored like the rainbow. | 


PUNCTUATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES = 225 


Crypt: <A vault. 

Triton: In Greek mythology, a sea-god who blows a 
conch-shell trumpet to raise or calm the waves. 

What are ‘‘the cold sea-maids” to whom the poet refers 
in the last line of the first stanza? 

Why is the nautilus said to have a “dim, dreaming life’’? 

Explain the word tenant in line 5, stanza 2. 

What does lustrous mean, line 2, stanza 3? 

Explain the word forlorn, line 3, stanza 4. 

Give in your own words the lesson that Holmes learns 
from the nautilus. 

Read the poem aloud in such a way that your audience ~ 
may understand the thought and feel the emotion expressed 
in the poem. 

Memorize ‘The Chambered Nautilus.” It has been 
found that a poem can be memorized most easily, not by 
taking it one line at a time-or a stanza at a time, but by re- 
peating the poem asa unit; that is, by reading it over and 
over from beginning to end, and then trying to give the 
entire poem. Try this plan in memorizing this poem. 


LESSON 31 
PUNCTUATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES 


Principal clauses, when short and closely connected, 
are separated by the comma; but the clauses are sepa- 
rated by the semicolon when they are only slightly 
connected, or are subdivided by the comma. 


We must conquer our passions, or they will conquer us. 

The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 

There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good 
is in the ascendant, and we know that it must triumph. 


226 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


EXERCISE 31 


I. Study these compound sentences and tell why they are 
punctuated as they are: 


1. He owed more than two thousand pounds, and he saw 
no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. 
2. Good wits jump; a word to the wise is sufficient. 


3. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn 
in no other. 


4. Dictionaries are like watches; the worst is better than 
none, and the best cannot be expected to go quite true. 


5. I used to enjoy reading your letters, and I regret your 


Aong silence. 


6. You are young, and have the world before you; 


-stoop as you go through it, and you will miss many hard 


Fen 


thumps. 


7, I meant to be at Ethan Crawford’s to-night; but a 
pedestrian lingers along such a road as this. 


8. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; 
I was very hungry; and my whole stock of cash consisted 
of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper. 


9. Doubtless God could have made a better berry than 
the strawberry, but doubtless God never did. 


10. A cow is a very good animal in a field; but we turn her 
out of a garden. 


Il. Punctuate the following compound sentences: 


1. Man proposes but God disposes. 
~ 9. It is not done well but you are surprised to find it done 
at all. 
“3. That fellow seems to me to possess but one idea and 
that is a wrong one. 


THE HEADING OF A LETTER 227 


4. I never take a nap after dinner except when I have 
had a bad night and then the nap takes me. 

5. Charity suffereth long and is kind;charity envieth not; 
charity vaunteth not itself;is not puffed up. | 

6. I have found you an argument I am not obliged to find 
you an understanding. 

7. I like their beauty I like their delicacy I like their 
vivacity and I like their silence. 

8. We drove down to the’ Hudson cottage but Mary 
Charles and Elizabeth had taken the morning train to the 
city. 

9. His business declined his debts increased it was with 
difficulty that the daily expenses of his household were 
defrayed. | 

10. An ordinary lad would have acquired little or no useful 
knowledge in such a way but much that was dull to ordinary 
lads was interesting to Samuel. 


LESSON 32 
THE HEADING OF A LETTER 


Notice carefully the following headings: 


1 2 
Montrose, Missouri, © Montrose, Missouri, July 9, 1917. 
July 9, 1917. 
3 
Route 8, Independence, Kansas, 
May 17, 1917. 


4 
Box 384, Somerset, Kentucky, 
December 9, 1918. 


228 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


~ 
1446 Colorado Avenue, 
Rochester, New York, 
August 2, 1918. 


In a small town or village where the mail is not de- 
livered at the houses, it is sufficient to write in the head- 
ing the names of the town and the state. The number 
of the post-office box may be added, as in No. 4 above. 
If the writer’s mail is delivered at his house by a rural 
mail carrier, the number of the rural route should be 
given. Whether the heading will occupy one line or 
more, depends somewhat upon the width of the paper. 
The style given in No. | looks better on narrow paper, 
while No. 2 is suitable for a wide sheet. , | 

Note how the commas and periods are used in the 
specimen headings. Periods are, of course, piaced after 
any abbreviations that may be used; but it is better 
(orm to avoid the use of abbreviations m headings. 
Punctuation at the ends of lines may be dispensed with 
if the writer prefers. Thus, it is allowable to write No. 
5 in the manner shown below. 

Instead of the slanted arrangement, of the lines, it is 
permissible to use the ‘“‘block” form, as in No. 6. 
In typewritten letters, the block form is often used for 
the heading and the inside address, and also for the 
address on the envelope. 


6 
1446 Colorado Avenue 1446 Colorado Avenue 
Rochester, New York Rochester, New York 
August 2, 1918 August 2, 1918 


ORAL COMPOSITION; REPORTS ON READING 229 


EXERCISE 32 


Write headings for letters written from the following places 
on the dates named: 


A> 


SSN 1. Billmgs, Missouri, May 11, 1917. 
~~2. The La Salle Hotel, Chicago, Illinois, January 2, 1918. 
—>3. A friend’s farm near Reinbeck, Iowa; the farm is on 
Route 4. 


4. Your own home, to-day. 


a0 


LESSON 33 
ORAL COMPOSITION; REPORTS ON READING 


You know that there is much material of great in- 
terest that cannot be put into textbooks of history, 
geography, and other subjects because of lack of space. 
For this reason we have books of supplementary read- 
ing and the fine collections of books in libraries. 

In your supplementary readers, in your school library, 
in books or magazines that you may have at home or 
can obtain from a public library, there are many valu- 
able and interesting facts about the topics you study 
in history, geography, hygiene, agriculture, civil goy- 
ernment, and literature. In many schools pupils are 
asked to read supplementary material and to report on 
their reading in class. 

These reports are a valuable form of oral composi- 
don. In preparing them, remember all the directions 
for making a talk, given on page 196. Read with care 
chapters or pages assigned to you. Make a careful 


4 


230 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


outline of the most interesting and important facts. 
Rehearse your report at home. 


EXERCISE 33 


Below are subjects from various school studies which may 
be used for oral reports on reading. Study this list and 
see if you have access to books in which you might learn 
about any of these subjects. If you are sure that you can 
find material on one of these topics, select it for an oral re- 
port. Your teacher may prefer to assign other topics, or 
you may yourself think of interesting and appropriate topics 
which you have the means of investigating. 


1. Some Interesting Events in the History of Our State. 
2. Plantation Life in the South. 

3. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. 

4. Life in New England in Colonial Times. 

5. Braddock’s Defeat. ; 

6. Franklin’s Boyhood. 

7. Daniel Boone. 

8. The Mound Builders. 

9. The Louisiana Purchase. 

10. Yellowstone Park. 

11. The Nile. 

12. The Discovery of the Poles. 

13. How to Get Rid of the House Fly. 

14. Care of the Teeth. 

15. Why Boys Should Not Use Tobacco. 

16. The Army Worm. 

17. Spraying Fruit Trees. 

18. The Rotation of Crops. 

19. A Model Kitchen. 

20. Good Methods of Canning and Preserving. 


NOISSNOSI(] GH, 
ZIG ‘kq Surjuieg oy} Woy 


EXPOSITION 231 


LESSON 34 
PICTURE STUDY AND DESCRIPTION 


The picture reproduced on the opposite page was 
- painted by Anton Seitz, a German artist. The original 
is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York 
City. 

EXERCISE 34 


Study the picture and discuss it in class. If you could 
examine the painting itself, you would see a horse in the 
background. What news do you think the speaker is 
telling? 

Write a description of the picture, telling who you imagine 
these people are and whav the scene suggests to you. 


LESSON 35 
EXPOSITION 


How Franguin LEARNED TO WRITE Goop ENGLISH 


About this time I met with an odd volume of the Spec- 
fator—I think that it was the third. I had never before seen 
any of them. I bought it, read it over and over, and was 
much delighted with it. I thought the writing excellent, 
and wished, if possible, to imitate it. 

With this view, I took some of the papers, and making 
short hints of the sentiment in each sentence, laid them by 
a few days, and then without looking at the book, tried to 
complete the papers again, by expressing each hinted senti- 
ment at length, and as fully as it had been expressed before, 
in any suitable words that should come to hand. Then I 


232 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


compared my Spectator with the original, discovered some 
of my faults, and corrected them. 

But I found that I wanted a stock of words or a readiness 
in using them, which I thought I should have acquired 
before that time if I had gone on making verses; since the 
continual occasion for words of the same import but of dif- 
ferent length, to suit the measure, or of different sound for 
the rhyme, would have laid me under a constant necessity 
of searching for variety, and also have tended to fix that 
variety in my mind and make me master of it. Therefore, 
I took some of the tales and turned them into verse; and 
after a time, when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, 
turned them back again. 

I also sometimes jumbled my collection of hints into con- 
fusion, and after some weeks endeavored to reduce them to 
the best order, before I began to form the full sentences and 
complete the paper. This was to teach me method in the 
arrangement of thoughts. 

By comparing my work afterwards with the original, I 
discovered many faults and amended them; but I sometimes 
had the pleasure of fancying that, in certain matters of small 
import, I had been lucky enough to improve the method or 
the language, and this encouraged me to think that 1 might 
possibly in time come to be a tolerable English writer, of 
which I was extremely ambitious. 

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, from his Autoboganne 


This is an explanation, or exposition, of the way in 
which Franklin learned to write prose. 


EXERCISE 35 


I. The Spectator was a paper that appeared daily for about 
two years in England in the early part of the eighteentr , 
century. Its principal authors were Addison and Steele. 


A SCHOOL PAPER 233 


Before he began to imitate the Spectator, Franklin had 
written several poems. 
~ What is the meaning of sentiment? 

What word means a stock of words? 

How, according to Franklin, would the continued writing 
of verse have improved his knowledge and use of words? 

The word import is used twice. What is its meaning in 
each sentence? 


II. You may apply Franklin’s method to this exposition of 
how he learned to write; that is, you may imitate Franklin 
as he imitated Addison. Read the exposition carefully and 
write down the different steps in it, making a topic for each 
paragraph. 

Close your book, and in the best words that occur to you 
rewrite Franklin’s account of his method of learning to write. 
Use the outline that you have made. Compare your work 
with the original. 


LESSON 36 
A SCHOOL PAPER 


The preparation of a school paper is interesting and 
profitable. Into it may be put some of the best com- 
positions of the class, little items of news about the 
school or the students, and brief articles of general news. 

These should all be written in the clearest form. The 
manuscript should be as nearly perfect as you can 
make it. You might use a colored paper cover, writing 
on it only the name and the date. The first page should 
give the contents. 

In some cases the school or some of the pupils may 
have typewriters on which the paper can be copied. 


234 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


With a typewriter, three or four copies can be made 
by the use of carbon sheets. Some schools have hecto- 
eraphs or mimeographs, and on these many copies 
can be made. Other schools have small printing outfits 
with which a large number of copies can be printed. 

Only two or three issues of the paper should be at- 
tempted during the year, and these should be carefully 
planned and executed. 


EXERCISE 36 


Make preparation for talks on some of the following subjects. 
Make an outline for each talk. : 

1. Why We Should Have a School Paper. 

2. An Argument against a School Paper. 

3, Some Plans for a School Paper. 

4. The Difficulties of Issuing a School Paper. 

5. What We Might Learn from Issuing a Paper. 

6. Names for the Paper and Why They Are Appropriate. 


LESSON 37 
THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPT 


Every composition that you write should be the best 
you can produce. ‘The handwriting should be neat and 
legible, and the letters should be well-formed and regu- 
lar. One important means of securing legibility is to 
leave plenty of space between the words and between 
the lines. If the words are crowded, the writing will 
be hard to read. If the lines are too close together, or 
if the loops of the letters are so long that the lines over- | 
lap, the writing will be illegible. 


EXPOSITION 235 


Leave a straight, even margin on the left side of the 
_ page. ‘This margin should be an inch wide on paper 
eight by ten inches or larger, but may be slightly nar- 
rower on paper not so large. 

The heading should be written in the middle of the 
page. Every important word in it should begin with 
a capital letter. I you are writing on ruled paper, 
leave a vacant line between the heading and the be- 
ginning of your composition. If the paper is unruled, 
leave a space of about an inch. | 

Indent the first word of each paragraph about half 
an inch. | 


EXERCISE 37 


In your own words, write what you learned about angle- 
worms in Lesson 19. Make this the best-looking manuscript 
that you can produce. 


LESSON 38 


EXPOSITION 


EXERCISE 38 


Write an exposition on one of the following topics: 
1. How to Make Sponge Cake (or some other kind of 

cake). . 
. How to Make Bread. 
. How to Make Biscuits. 
. How to Make Money in Raising Chickens. 
. The Best Methods of Raising Corn. 
. How to Play Tennis. 
. The Game of Baseball. 


“ID Ore W WN 


236 VAKT TWO: COMPOSITIUN 


8. How Checkers is Played. 
9. How Alcohol Injures the Body. 
10. How to Care for the Teeth. 


Ask yourself the following questions about your essay: 


a. Is the handwriting neat and legible? 

b. Have I kept an even margin of the proper width on 
the left? 

c. Is the first word of every paragraph indented? 

qd. Have I in any case left a blank space at the end of a 

line when I do not intend to begin a paragraph on the next 
line? 

e. Have I begun every sentence with a capital and put the 
proper mark at the end of every sentence? 

f. Have I punctuated as a sentence any group of words 
that is not a sentence? 

g. Have I joined together by and’s sentences that-ought to 
‘be separated? 


LESSON 39 
DICTATION; CORRECT SPEECH 
EXERCISE 39 


Write from dictation, filling the blanks with the proper form: 


go to town? (J, me) 


. May Mary and 


. Will you let George and clean the erasers? (I, me) 
. Charles take music lessons now. (don’t, doesn’t) 
. John stands (bad, badly) 

. The milk tasted (sour, sourly) 


—— we bring in this theme to-morrow? (may, can) || 


Noarpvwnwe 


you the first to arrive? (was, were) 


ORAL COMPOSITION ;s A TALK 237 


(she, her) 
to drink the water. (began, begun) 


8. Mary is taller than 

9. The ox 
10. 
Analyze or diagram this sentence if you are in doubt. 
LH Lo 
12. Do you know 
13. Each of the boys well. (write, writes) 
14. Read it I read it. (like, as) 

15. Walk —— me. (like, as) 

16. Every one worked 
17. Either of the sisters 
18. The speaker 
19. There 
20. Willis me part of his lunch. (give, gave) 
21. The little birds sing ——. (sweet, sweetly) 
22. 
23. He will divide it between you and ——. (I, me) 
24. Glen 
25. Henry always did his work 


did you say won? (who, whom) 


shall the prize be given? (who, whom) 


it is? (who, whom) 


problems. (his, their) 
the car. (drive, drives) 


know when to stop. (don’t, doesn’t) 


four men in the field. (7s, are) 


the chair in the dining room. (sit, set) 


me to row a boat. (learned, taught) 


(good, well) 


LESSON 40 


ORAL COMPOSITION; A TALK 
EXERCISE 40 

1. Prepare, and give before the class, a talk on “‘How the 
Use of Good English Helps a Young Person in Business.” 

2. Prepare, and give before the class, a talk on ‘‘How to 
Write Letters of Friendship.” 

3. Prepare, and give before the class, a talk on ‘How 
Franklin Learned to Write Good English.”’ 


238 PART TWO; COMPOSITION 
In making your talk, remember that you shoud 


a. Stand erect. 

b. Look at your audience. 

c. Let your voice fall at the end of sentences, except those 
that ask questions. 

Speak clearly; pronounce the final g in words ending, 
in ing. 


LESSON 41 


ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSES 


The adjective clause, wees not essential, is set off 
by the comma. 

A clause is restrictive, or essential, when it limits the 
meaning of the word it modifies. If a clause is not es- 
sential, it simply adds a detail to our knowledge of the 
word modified. An essential clause cannot be spared 
from the sentence, for the meaning would be very 
different if it were absent. A non-essential clause could 
be dropped out of the sentence, and there would be no 
great or essential change in meaning. 

For example, ‘n the sentence ‘‘The boy who entered - 
school yesterday will please come to the desk,” we see 
that the clause who entered school yesterday is essential 
because it restricts the meaning of boy to just one in- 
dividual. | 

‘The stranger came close to the fire, which was now 
burning cheerfully:’”—in this sentence the adjective  - 
clause is added as a descriptive detail, but it is not ab-. . 
solutely essential to the sentence. 


ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSES 239 


An adverbial clause is set off by the comma unless it 
follows closely and restricts the word it modifies. 


I will not call him villain, because it would be unparlia- 
mentary. 
Paper was invented in China, if the Chinese tell the truth. 


In the above sentences the adverbial clauses are sup- 
plementary and are added almost as afterthoughts. 


Glass bends easily when itt ts red-hot. 
Leaves do not turn red because the frost colors them. 
It will break of you touch tt. 


The adverbial clauses in the above sentences are es- 
sential; each is very closely related in thought to the 
principal clause, and may be said to be a necessary 
part of the sentence. 

Note that when the adverbial clause precedes the 
word it modifies, even if it is essential, it is set off by a 
comma; as, 


When it is red-hot, glass bends easily. 


EXERCISE 41 


Tell which of these clauses are essential and which are non- 
essential, and punctuate accordingly: 


1. The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain. 
2. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. 
3. There is a sumptuous variety about the New England 
weather that compels the stranger’s admiration—and regret. 
A, See! Antony that revels long o’ nights 
Is notwithstanding up. 


240 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


V 5. This was the first time I ever heard of the plan which 
atterwards proved to be so important to me. 


v6. One who is interested in laying hold on wisdom is likely 
to pees a scholar. . 


4k). He was introduced to Johnson who was then considered 
the wie of living English writers. 


8. The novel which was thus ushered into the world, was 
“The Vicar of Wakefield.”’ 


0) He committed some strange blunders for he knew 
nothing of accuracy. 


C0? He came of a Protestant ae Saxon family 1 which had 
long been settled in Ireland, : 


1. By this time the schoolmncker whom he had eh 1) 
4or a morsel of food and the third part of a bed,was no more. 


12. He had inherited from his ancestors a scrofulous taint 
which it was beyond the power of medicine to remove, 


13. While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his 
family was sinking into poverty. 


14. I cannot leave_ until the proprietor returns. _ 


15. He never roreok the generosity with which Hervey 
who was now residing in London relieved his wants during 
this time of trial. 

c( 16. If you call a dog Hervey I shall love him: - 


¢ 17) Bring me the brown book, that stands on the highest 
shelf. . 


18. The book pwhich was covered with dust, had been a — 
favorite with his uncle. 


19. Among them was Sir Thomas Randolph whose mother 
was a sister of King Robert. 


720) He will pay the note when he sells his wheat. 


72). I had often passed his house when I was taking my, - 
morning ride. 


GUVMVIA(: AHL ONISSOUD) NOLONIHSV AA 


ezyneT Aq Suyuleg oy} WoT 


ADDRESS AND SALUTATION OF LETTERS 241 


22. By following this plan we shall reach the ore if there is 
any ore. 
23. Though I am no judge of such matters 
I’m sure he’s a talented man. 
24. The visitor has killed all kinds of big game if we may 
believe his stories. 
25. It is best not to swap horses while crossing a, river. 


| 


Pid 
1 Sts 


CA 
LESSON 42 
DESCRIPTION OF A PAINTING 
EXERCISE 42 


On the opposite page is a reproduction of the well- 
known picture by Leutze, ‘‘Washington Crossing the Dela- 
ware.” Read in your history, or in other reference books, the 
account of how Washington crossed the ice-filled river and 
surprised the enemy at Trenton. 

Write a description of the picture. 


LESSON 43 
ADDRESS AND SALUTATION OF LETTERS 


The inside address consists of the name of the person 


or firm to whom the letter is written and the names of 


the state and town or city to which the letter is sent. 
In addition to the name of the place, there should be 


a street address, rural route, or post-office box. The 


proper title should be given the person addressed, as in 
the following illustrations. 


ee ee 


242 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


Notice the commas and periods in these addresses: 


1 2 
Mr. Frank R. Swan, Miss Elizabeth Woods, 
Reynoldsville, 256 Hitt Street, 
Pennsylvania. | Douglas, Arizona. 


3) 


Longmans, Green, and Co., 
443 Fourth Avenue, 
New York, | 
New York. 


The inside address may also be written without punc- 
tuation at the ends o’ lines. 

In letters of friendship, the inside address may be 
omitted, but it should always be written in business 
letters; and there is a good reason for writing it in all — 
letters. If through accident the envelope should be 
destroyed or the direction on it rendered illegible, the 
address on the inside would make it possible for the 
post-office department to forward the letter to its des- 
tination. 

The form of salutation depends upon the relations 
existing between the writer and his correspondent. In 
letters of friendship or family letters there is little difh- 
culty about the salutation. In business letters, ‘‘ Dear 
Sir” is the form usually employed in addressing a man. 
““Dear Madam”’ is the salutation for a woman, whether 
married or unmarried. ‘‘My dear Sir” and ‘‘ My dear 
-Madam” are more formal salutations than those 
which omit my. ‘‘Gentlemen” or ‘‘Dear Sirs” is the 
form used in addressing a firm or a body of men. 


THE ORDER OF MODIFIERS 243 


Here are some appropriate salutations for friendly 
letters: 


Dear Mother, Dear Friend, 
Dear Mr. Parton, Dear Lucy, 


‘Kind Sir,” ‘‘Kind Friend,” and ‘‘Friend Brown” 
are not in good use. ‘‘ Dear Friend”’ should not be used 
in a business letter. 

It is customary to use, after the salutation, a colon in 
a formal business letter and a comma in a friendly letter. 


EXERCISE 43 


1. Write a letter, ordering some book that you would like 
to have. 

2. Write a letter to a relative, thanking him for a birthday 
present. | 

3. Suppose that you have moved to another town and are 
required to have a copy of your grades, or record, at your 
former school before you can be classified in the new school. 
Write a letter to your former teacher, asking for the necessary 
information. Mention the fact that you inclose a stamp for 

her reply. 


LESSON 44 


THE ORDER OF MODIFIERS 


Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to the 
words you intend them to modify. 


WRONG 
I only bring forward a few things. 
We merely speak of numbers. 
The Chinese chiefly live upon rice. 


244 ~~+~PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


RicHtT 
I bring forward only a few things. 
We speak merely of numbers. 
The Chinese live chiefly upon rice. 


In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as 
to what you intend it to modify. 


WRONG 
A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and 
benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. 


RIGHT 
A poor child suffering from cold and hunger was found in 
the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman. 


Place phrase modifiers where there can be no doubt 
as to what you intend them to modify. 


WRONG 
That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 


Ricut 

That small man with red whiskers is speaking. 

The adjective clause should be placed as near as pos- 
sible to the word it modifies. 
WRONG 

Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 
RIGHT 


Solomon, who built the Temple, was the son of David. 


The order of words, phrases, and clauses is very im- 
portant in English. Always place modifiers in such a 


THE ORDER OF MODIFIERS 245 


way that the meaning will be clear. Also, arrange modi- 
fiers so that the sentence will sound smooth. 


EXERCISE 44 


Change the order in the following sentences where it is nec- 
essary to make the meaning clear or to wmprove the sound. 
Punctuate your sentences. 


1. Hath the Lord only spoken by Moses? 

2. He must have certainly been sick. 

3. The honorable member was reproved for being BOT, 
cated by the president. 

4, A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the 
summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 

5. With his gun towards the woods he started in the 
morning. 

6. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily 
engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 

“7. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the 
reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous 
exploits. 

8. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred 
inhabitants built of brick. ant. 

9. On Monday evening a lecture by Governor Hanly 
rvas delivered at the old brick church on prohibition. 

10. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced 
tailor handsomely trimmed and ney at a bargain are 
offered cheap. 

11. My brother caught ihe fish on a small hook baited 
with a minnow which we had for breakfast. 

12. The speaker was addressing the crowd as I came in 
with great eloquence. 


246 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


DR bat) 
LTH 


i Mit 
ei 


THE CRAIGIE HOUSE 


LESSON 45 
DESCRIPTION OF A BUILDING 


Study carefully this picture of a fine old colonial 
mansion. It is the Craigie House at Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. During the Revolution it was for 
a time the headquarters of General Washington. 
Afterwards it became the residence of Henry Wads- 
worth Longfellow. | 


EXERCISE 45 


From the picture, write a description of the Craigie House 
and its grounds. 


' VARIOUS USES OF THE COMMA 247 


LESSON 46 
VARIOUS USES OF THE COMMA 


An explanatory or appositive modifier, when it does 
not restrict the term modified or combine closely with 
it, is set off by the comma. 


Jacob’s favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel’s 
children. 

William the Conqueror was an able ruler. 

My brother Henry belongs to a boat club. 


In the last two sentences, the connection between the 
appositive and the word it modifies is too close to admit 
of commas. } . 


Words and phrases that modify the whole sentence are 
set off by the comma. 

No, we could not find the piace. 

Certainly, the direction given us is wrong. 

We shall, however, try again. 


Nouns or pronouns used independently in address or 
pleonasm are set off by the comma. (For an explana- 
tion of pleonasm, see page 67.) 


The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. 
The smith, a mighty man was he. 


Phrases in absolute construction are set off by the 
comma. 


The officers being absent, the men were thrown. into con: 
fusion. 


248 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


EXERCISE 46 


I. Tell why the commas are used in the following sentences: 


1. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his 
treatment of Montezuma. 

2. Yes, you may remain here. 

3. Gentlemen, there is a sublime and friendly Destiny by 
which the human race is guided. 

4. Why, then, do we hesitate to swell our words to meet 
our needs? 

5, Obviously, good English is exact English. 

6. The cell being empty, he ran out into the yard. 

7. Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done 
more to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowl- 
edge easy and pleasant. 

8. He wrote ‘“‘The Good-natured Man,” a piece which 
had a fate worse than it deserved. 

9. The fable is, indeed, one of the worst that was ever 
eonstructed. 

10. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 


Il. Place commas where they are needed in the following 
sentences: 


1. Build thee more stately mansions ;O,my soul. 
2. Come dear old comrade, you and I 
Will steal an hour from days gone by. 

3. There are a good many gestures,even that are more 
expressive than words. 

4. I shall defer my visit to Faneuil Hall the cradle of 
American liberty. 

5. The almighty doilar that great Shad of devotion 


DICTATION ; LETTER WRITING 249 
throughout our land seems to have no genuine devotees 
in these villages. 


6. I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs , 
A palace and a prison on each hand. 


. Roll on thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 
. He was a good-natured mana humorist and a punster. 


oon 


. Heavy nets it is stated are let down into the water. 


‘10. Upon. making up his statement however he found that 
the man was right. 


11. I am indeed sir a surgeon to old shoes. 
12. I saw Henry the secretary on my way here. 
13. He was at. liberty after thirty years of anxiety and 
drudgery to indulge his constitutional indolence. 
14. Lay thy soft hand upon my brow and cheek peaceful 
Sleep. 
15. It is a penny-wise and pound-foolish policy so to speak. 


LESSON 47 
\ DICTATION; LETTER WRITING 


EXERCISE 47 


Study carefully the following note to Edwin M. Stanton, 
Secretary of War, and write it from dictation: 


~ Washington, - 
March 1, 1864. 
aL, dear Sir, 

A poor widow, by the name of Baird, has a 
son in the army, that for some offence has been sentenced to 
serve a long time without pay, or at most with very little pay. 
I do not like this punishment of withholding pay—it falls 
so very hard upon poor families. After he had been serving 


250 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


inthis way for several months, at the tearful appeal of the 
poor mother I made a direction that he be allowed to enlist 
for a new term on the same condition as others. She now 
comes, and says she cannot get it acted upon. Please do it. 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN 


LESSON 48 


THE BODY OF THE LETTER AND THE CLOSE; 
LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION 


The salutation stands on a line by itself, and the 
body of the letter begins on the next line. It should begin 
just below the point where the salutation ends, thus: 


Dear Mr. Walton, 
: It was kind of you to write us when you 
heard of Fred’s accident. 


The letter closes with one of the customary courteous 
expressions. ‘This complimentary close begins about the 
middle of the page; it is followed by a comma. Only 
the first word begins with a capital. Do not use ab- 
breviations in the complimentary close. 

Here are some of the phrases used in the conclusion, 
the one employed depending upon the character of the 
letter and the intimacy of the writer with the person 
addressed : 


Yours truly, Yours sincerely, 
Very truly yours, Your triend, 
Yours respectfully, Yours affectionately, 


A ridiculous blunder, sometimes made, is the use of ‘‘ Yours 
respectivelu”’ for “‘ Yours respectfully.”’ 


\ 


LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION 251 


Letters of introduction are given unsealed to the per- 
son introduced. On the envelope is the name of the 
bearer of the letter as well as that of the one to whom 
it is directed. This at once explains the purpose of the 
letter to the person receiving it, and enables him to 


call his visitor by name as soon as the letter is delivered. 


A Letter oF INTRODUCTION 


Medford, Oregon, 
March 15, 1918. 


‘Mr. Mittford Pitt, 


Anadarko, Oklahoma. 


Dear Mr. Pitt: 

This will introduce Mr. James C. Cooper, a 
friend of mine, who has occasion to spend some time in your 
town, looking after a matter of business. 

I shall regard as a personal favor any courtesy that you 
may be able to show Mr. Cooper. 
. Yours faithfully, 
ANDREW J. LINDSAY 


Tue ENVELOPE 


Mr. Mittford Pitt 


Introducing Mr. James C. Coop2r 


252 PART TWO: COMPOSITION — 


EXERCISE 48 


1. Write a letter of introduction for a schoolmate who is 
going to visit friends in a town where your cousin lives, 

2. Write a brief letter from your cousin, in which he in- 
forms you that your letter of introduction has been.-delivered, 
and promises to show your schoolmate any courtesies that 
he can. 


LESSON 49 
A CONVERSATION ON CURRENT EVENTS 


Much of the conversation of well-informed people is 
about the important events that are happening in the 
world. Such talk is profitable, and is far more inter- 
esting than mere chatter about trivial things. To 
participate in it, we must read intelligently the best 
magazines and newspapers. 

With the purpose of taking part in a conversation 
on current events, read for several days the best daily, 
weekly, or monthly publications that you can procure. 
Each pupil should select one event or one subject and 
read about that. In choosing your topic and the facts 
to be told about it, ask yourself, ‘‘Is this subject im- 
portant and appropriate, and will it interest the other 
pupils?’ It is suggested that you sit in your seat and 
give your contribution to the conversation much as if 
you were telling it to a group of companions outside 
the schoolroom or to your family at home. 


EXERCISE 49 


Following the directions given above, prepare to take part 


EXPOSITION 253 


in a conversation on current events. As only a few minutes 
can be given to each topic, plan what you have to say so 
that it will not take too much time. Be prepared to answer 
any questions that your classmates or your teacher may ask. 


To the Teacher. It will be well to repeat this exercise several 
times during the year. 


LESSON 50 
EXPOSITION 


Tue LirrLe FRIENDSHIP FIRE 


This form of fire does less work than any other in the world. 
Yet it is far from being useless; and I, for one, should be sorry 
to live without it. Its only use is to make a visible center of 
interest where there are two or three anglers eating their 
lunch together, or to supply a kind of companionship to a 
lone fisherman. It is kindled and burned for no other pur- 
pose than to give you the sense of being at home and at ease. 
Why the fire should do this, I cannot tell, but it does. 

You may build your friendship fire in almost any way that 
_ pleases you; but this is the way in which you shall build it 
best. You have no axe, of course, so you must look for the 
driest sticks that you can find. Do not seek them close be- 
side the stream, for there they are likely to be water-soaked; 
but go back into the woods a bit and gather a good armful 
of fuel. Then break it, if you can, into lengths of about two 
feet, and construct your fire in the following fashion. 

Lay two sticks parallel, and put between them a pile of 
dried grass, dead leaves, small twigs, and the paper in which 
your lunch was wrapped. - Then lay two.other sticks cross- 
wise on top of your first pair. Strike your match and touch 
your kindlings. As the fire catches, lay on other pairs of 


254 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


sticks, each pair crosswise to the pair that is below it, until 
you have a pyramid of flame. This is “a Micmac fire” such 
as the Indians make in the woods. 

Henry van Dykk, from Fisherman’s Luck 


EXERCISE 50 


Explain one or more of the following processes. Choose one 
which is already familiar to you or one of which you can 
learn through reading, observation, or experiment. 

1. How to make a certain kind of ice cream or ice. 

2. How to make a certain kind of candy. 

3. One way of making good coffee. : 

4. How to play some game that is a favorite with your 
schoolmates. 

5. Some important play in baseball. 

6. How to select seed corn. 

7. How to catch a certain kind of fish. 
™8. How to make a kite. 

9. How to analyze a sentence. 


10. It may be that you have built a successful fire in the 
woods. Your method may have differed in some ways from 
that which Dr. van Dyke recommends for the little friend- 
ship fire. Explain fully how you built your fire. 


LESSON 51 
NARRATION 


An AUTOBIOGRAPHY 


~ I was born February 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Ken- 
~tucky. My parents were both born in Virginia, of undis- 


| 


NARRATION 255 


tinguished families—second families, perhaps I should say. 
' My mother, who died in my tenth year, was of a family 
of the name of Hanks, some of whom now reside in Adams, 
and others in Macon County, Illinois. My paternal grand- 
father, Abraham Lincoln, emigrated from Rockingham 
County, Virginia, to Kentucky about 1781 or 1782, where a 
year or two later he was killed by the Indians, not in battle, 
but by stealth, when he was laboring to open a farm in the. 
forest. His ancestors, who were Quakers, went to Virginia 
from Berks County, Pennsylvania. An effort to identify 
them with the New England family of the same name ended 
in nothing more definite than a similarity of Christian names 
in both families, such as Enoch, Levi, Mordecai, Solomon, 
Abraham, and the like. 

My father, at the death of his father, was but six years of 
age, and he grew up literally without education. He removed 
from Kentucky to what is now Spencer County, Indiana, in 
_ my eighth year. We reached our new home about the time 
the State came into the Union. It was a wild region, with 
many bears and other wild animals still in the woods. There 
I grew up. There were some schools, so called, but no quali- 
fication was ever required of a teacher beyond ‘readin’, 
writin’, and cipherin’” to the rule of three. If a straggler 
supposed to understand Latin happened to sojourn in the 
neighborhood, he was looked upon as a wizard. There was 
absolutely nothing to excite ambition for education. Of 
course, when I came of age I did not know much. Still, 
somehow, I could read, write, and cipher to the rule of three, 
but that was all. I have not been to school since. The 
little advance I now have upon this store of education I 
have picked up from time to time under the pressure of 
necessity. 3 ogee 

I was raised to farm work, which I continued till I was 
twenty-two. At twenty-one I came to Illinois, Macon 
County. Then I got to New Salem, at that time in Sanga- 


256 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


mon County, now in Menard County, where I remained a 
year as a sort of clerk in a store. 

Then came the Black Hawk War; and I was elected a 
captain of volunteers, a success which gave me more pleasure 
than any I have had since. I went through the campaign; 
ran for the legislature the same year (1832), and was beaten 
—the only time I ever have been beaten by the people. 
The next and three succeeding biennial elections I was 
elected to the legislature. I was not a candidate afterward. 
During this legislative period I had studied law, and re- 
moved to Springfield to practise it. In 1846 I was once 
elected to the lower House of Congress. I was not a candi- 
date for reélection. From 1849 to 1854, both inclusive, 
I practised law more assiduously than ever before. I was 
always a Whig in politics; and was generally on the Whig 
electoral tickets, making active canvasses. I was losing 
interest in politics when the repeal of the Missouri Com- 
promise aroused me again. What I have done since then . 
is pretty well known. : 

If any personal description of me is thought desirable, it 
may be said I am, in height, six feet four inches, nearly; 
lean in flesh, weighing on an average one hundred and eighty 
pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair and gray 
eyes. No other marks or brands recollected. » 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN, from a letter — 


This brief and modest story of his own life, up to 
1859, is taken from a letter which Lincoln wrote to 
Mr. J. W. Fell in that year. Notice how clearly 
Lincoln tells the facts about himself which one would 
wish to know. A careful study of this narrative will - 
show you what Lincoln thinks it important to tell, 
and how he makes his story clear. 


NARRATION : BIOGRAPHY 257 


EXERCISE 51 


1. Make an outline of Lincoln’s story of his life up to 1859. 


2. Close your book and write the story of Lincoln’s life 
from the outline which you have made. 


3. Retell orally, in the first person, the story of Lincoln’s 
life as he has told it. 


4. Retell orally the narrative of Lincoln’s career, using the 
third person. 


LESSON 52 


NARRATION: BIOGRAPHY 


EXERCISE 52 


Using Lincoln’s sketch of his life as a model, write a similar 
sketch of the career of some famous man or woman whom you 
admire. Use the third person in telling the story. Washing- 
ton, Benjamin Franklin, Daniel Boone, Robert E. Lee, 
Theodore Roosevelt, Susan B. Anthony, and Helen Keller are 
characters about whom you may wish w write. However, 
your choice is not limited to these. You will need to consult 
your histories and some of the books in your school library. 

Make a careful outline before beginning to write. Tell 
the events in the life of your subject in the order in which 
‘they happened. Select the occurrences that are interesting 
and important. 

Write your composition as well as you can; then go over 
it carefully and improve it wherever you can. Be sure that 
your paragraphing follows the directions for paragraphs on 
page 195. Some of your sentences may not sound well. 
Reconstruct them until thev are perfectly clear and read 


258 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


smoothly. Finally, when all your corrections are completed, - 
make the neatest and best copy of which you are capable. 


LESSON 53 
NARRATION: AUTOBIOGRAPHY 


EXERCISE 53 


Using Lincoln’s autobiography as a model, write your own 
autobiography up to the present. 

A little thought will furnish you with sufficient material. 
Tell something of your parents and more remote ancestors, 
and of the different places where you have lived. Narrate the 
different steps in your education. Tell of any adventures 
that have happened to you. What have you done besides 
going to school? Have you earned money? Are you es- 
pecially interested in any one subject, as electricity, farming, 
cooking, or fishing and hunting? What books have you en- 
joyed most? What trips have youtaken? Perhaps you kave 
taken some part in games or athletics which will furnish 
material for your autobiography. 


LESSON 54 


PUNCTUATION: COLON, DASH, PARENTHESIS 


The Colon: 


1. The colon is used before a statement that is 
formally introduced. 


To Lentulus and Gellius bear this message: ‘Their graves _ 
are measured.”’ : 


PUNCTUATION 259 


2. The colon is used after the salutation in a business 
or formal letter. 
Gentlemen: 
We have not received the goods. 


The Dash: j 
1. Use the dash where such words as namely, that 1s, - 
as, or equivalent expressions are omitted. 


There are two certain things in this world—taxes and 
death. 


2. Use the dash where the sentence breaks off 
abruptly. 


I said—I know not what I said. 


3. The dash is frequently used, instead of marks of 
parenthesis, to set off expressions which have a very 
slight connection with the rest of the sentence. 


. For the first time in weeks—years, it seemed to me— 
something of the old cheerfulness mingled with our conver- 
sation around the evening lamp. 


Commas and dashes together are sometimes used to 
set off these parenthetical expressions. 

The too frequent use of the dash is a common fault. 
Do not use the dash needlessly. 


Marks of ‘Parenithesis : 


Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose words that 
have no essential connection with the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

I fastened one end of the rope (it was a few yards cut from 


Kitty Collins’s sean play to the bedpost nearest the 
window. 


260 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


Use marks of parenthesis sparingly. The need of 
them often indicates that the sentence should be recast 
to avoid the expression inclosed within the marks of 
parenthesis. 


EXERCISE 54 


Study the punctuation of the following sentences and write 
them from dictation: 


1. Toward the end of her life,—she lived to be ninety- 
nine,—she grew very fretful and capricious about her food. 

2. The Oldest Inhabitant (what would become of a New 
England town or village without its oldest inhabitant?) 
overhauled his almanacs and pronounced it the deepest snow 
we had had for twenty years. 


3. Her proper sphere in life—and the one to which she ~ 
afterwards attained—was the sawdust arena of a traveling 
circus. 


4. ‘To speak critically, I never received more than one or 
two letters in my life—I wrote this some years ago—that were 
worth the postage. 


5. All I could say, then, with respect to farming on a 
large scale (I have always cultivated a garden), was that I 
had my seeds ready. 


6. On the last morning of his life, he wrote these words: 
“T have named none to their disadvantage.” 


97. A Persian’s heaven is eas’ly made: 
Tis but black eyes and lemonade. 


8. If you choose to represent the various parts in life by 
holes upon a table, of different shapes,—some circular, some 
triangular, some square, some oblong,—and the persons act- 
ing these parts by bits of wood of similar shapes, we shall 
generally find that the triangular person has got into the 


BUSINESS LETTERS 261 


square hole, the oblong into the triangular, and a square 
person has squeezed himself into a round hole. 

9. No one'minds what Jeffrey says—it is not more than a 
week ago that I heard him speak disrespectfully of the 
equator. “i 

10. Perhaps it was right to dissemble your love, 
But—why did you kick me downstairs? 


; LESSON 55 

é J’ BUSINESS LETTERS 

Since much of the world’s business is done by cor- 
respondence, the ability to write good, effective business 
letters is in great demand. Business letters should be 
absolutely clear. Be careful to say what you mean in 
such a way that it will be impossible to misunderstand 
it. The letter should be short and to the point, but it 
should always be courteous. Special attention should 
be given to legibility. If you write for information or 
to ask some other favor, inclose a stamp for reply. 
Inclose the stamp loose; do not stick it to the letter. 

Frequently it is necessary to send money in letters. 
It is unsafe to send bills or coins by mail, although 
small silver pieces in a coin card, having openings cut 
to fit the money, may be sent safely. Postage stamps 
may be sent for small sums, say for fifty cents or less. 
The safe ways of sending money by mail are (1) post- 
office or express money order, (2) bank draft, (3) per- 
sonal check. The check should be made out to the 
order of the person or firm to whom it is sent, not left 


262 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


so that it is payable to bearer. The objections to send- 
ing personal checks are that some firms will not accept 
them, and that sometimes the recipient of the check, 
if he lives in a distant city, must pay exchange when he 
cashes it. 


EXERCISE 55 


Study the following letter ordering goods, and then copy tt 


accurately: 
115 South Detroit Street, 
Warsaw, Indiana, 
September 12, 1917. 
Williams & Conover, 
432 Wells Street, 
Chicago, Illinois. 


Gentlemen: 
Please send me by prepaid American Express the 
following articles selected from your Catalogue No. 17: 


Expert 64 foot Steel Bait Casting Rod......... $1.90 
Kentucky Pattern Jeweled Satin Finished Reel. 2.50 
Kewell Stewart’s Famous Spoon, 44 inches... .. 65 
Beaver Silk Casting Line, No. 5.'........ 7 1.00 
2 Phantom Minnows, 3 inches long, 30¢ each.... .60 

Roti 6 Pe umea 200. haa ee $6. 65 


I inclose a post-office money order for the amount of this 
purchase. 
Yours truly, 
HAWKINS UNDERWOOD © 


ne 


LETTER WRITING 263 


LESSON 56 


LETTER WRITING: THE SIGNATURE AND THE 
SUPERSCRIPTION 


The signature consists of the full name, though in 
case the letter 1s written to a near relative or friend, 
only the Christian name need be used. In writing to a 
stranger, a woman prefixes Miss or Mrs. in parenthesis, 
so.that the person receiving the letter may know how to 
address the reply. A married woman sometimes signs 
her name twice, using her Christian name and then, 
inclosed in parenthesis, her name as wife, thus: 


Clara Young 
(Mrs. George T. Young) 


The signature should be written plainly so that your 
correspondent will not have to puzzle over the name of 
the person to whom his reply should be addressed. 
The signature is begun somewhat farther to the right 
than the complimentary close. No period is necessary 
after the signature. 

The superscription, or direction on the envelope, be- 
gins slightly above the middle of the envelope and not 
far from the left edge. The different lines should be 
the same distance apart, and the beginning of each line 
should be at a uniform distance from the beginning of 
the preceding line, so that there will be a slant, as in 
No. 1 below. On the first line stand the name and the 
title, if one is used; on the second, the door number and 
the street, or the number of the rural route or post- 


264 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


office box; on the third, the name of the city or town; 
on the fourth, the name of the state. Special directions, 
like ‘‘To be forwarded” or “In care of Mr. Henry 
Woods,” may be placed in the lower left-hand corner. 
It is best not to abbreviate the name of the state 
or the words street and avenue. Commas may be placed 
after each line except the last, but it is also good form 
to omit them. It is allowable to use the ‘“‘block” 
form of address, illustrated in No. 2 below. 


1 2 
Miss Edith Rumford, Mr. J. F. Cartt 
241 Main Street, Box 91 
Winsted, Siloam Springs 
Connecticut. Arkansas 


3 


After 5 days return to 
Harland J. Lupton, Attorney, 
Columbia, South Carolina. 


Most business men have a return direction printed 
in the upper left-hand corner of their envelopes, as in 
No. 3 above. If the letter cannot be delivered, this 
direction insures that it will be sent back promptly to 
the writer. Thousands of letters are mailed with in- 
correct or incomplete superscription, and with no direc- 
tions for returning to the sender. For this reason, it 
is always well to write on the envelope the full address 
of the sender. Mistakes may be made through care- 
lessness even in a familiar address; a return direction 
is very quickly added and may save the postal clerk 
some trouble and you much inconvenience. 


DESCRIPTION OF A MOTION PICTURE 265 


EXERCISE 56 


1. Your mother is away on a visit. Write her a letter, 
telling her what has happened. at home in her absence. 
Think of the things she wants to know about. 


2. One of your schoolmates has gone away for a week. 
Write to this schoolmate, relating the news of the school. 


3. A friend of yours has had an accident that will confine 
him to the house for several days. Write to him, expressing 
regret for his misfortune. Tell him that you are sending him 
by mail a copy of Kipling’s “First Jungle Book” (or some 
other book) to read while he is shut in. 


LESSON 57 


COMPOSITION: DESCRIPTION OF A MOTION 
PICTURE 


EXERCISE 57 


“A few days ago I saw a motion picture that was worth 
while.” Let this be the first sentence of a composition 
about a good motion picture which you have seen. If more 
than a few days have passed since you saw the picture, 
change the sentence to fit the facts. Select a picture that 
deals with commerce, manufacture, travel, current events, 
or something else that is both educational and interesting. 
Describe the picture just as you would describe it to some 
friend who had not seen it. 

If you have not lately seen a motion picture that you wish 
to write about, describe an entertainment or a series of pic- 
tures from your geography or some other book. Ve Pe 

| | i 


266 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


‘LESSON 58 
EXPOSITION 


NATURALIZATION | y 


~ Naturalization is the process by which a person born in a 
foreign country may become a citizen of the United States. 
The United States law requires that a person who wishes 
to become a citizen must have lived in the United States for 
five years, and he must declare his intention to become a 
citizen at least two years before he may become naturalized. 
This is done before a United States or a state court. The — 
applicant is then given his first papers, showing that he has 
applied for naturalization. Two years or more after re- 
ceiving these first papers, he must again go before the court 
and swear that he gives up his citizenship in his own country, 
and accepts citizenship in the United States. He is then 
viven a certificate showing that he is a citizen of the United 
States and entitled to all the privileges of a citizen. 


This is an explanatory, or expository, paragraph. 
Read it carefully and see if it gives you a clear idea of 
the process of naturalization. Try to sum up the 
thought of the paragraph in a single sentence. 


EXERCISE 58 


Using the paragraph on naturalization as a model, select one 
of the topics below and explain what it is. Be sure that you 
know exactly what your subject is before you begin to write. 
Make your exposition so clear that a pupil in your grade who 
knows nothing of your subject will understand it after hearing 
your explanation. Some of the topics are treated in the 
textbooks which you use in school. The necessary in- 


FOLDING THE LETTER 267 


formation on other topics you will probably find in some 
book in the school library. . 


— 


. A Tourniquet. 

. Microbes. 

. A Vacuum Cleaner. 

. A Fireless Cooker. 

The Merit System in the Civil Service. 
The Initiative. 

. The Referendum. 

The Sun in Relation to the Change of Seasons. 
. The Electoral College. 

. Protective Tariff and Revenue Tariff. 

. A Machine Gun. 


CONOaAR Wh 


a 
mee =, 


LESSON 59 


a 


LETTER WRITING 


EXERCISE 59 


Write a business letter, complete and correct in all of its 
parts, including the direction on the envelope. 


LESSON 60 
FOLDING THE LETTER 


An awkwardly folded letter makes a bad impression; 
but correct folding is a simple matter. The important 
thing is to use an envelope which will fit the sheet of 
paper when it has been properly folded. A sheet of 
business stationery, about 84 by 11 inches, fits nicely 


268 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


a No. 6% envelope, which is about 62 inches long and 
o¢ inches wide. Such a sheet is folded in this manner: 


No. 1. With the sheet lying before you, fold the 
lower half over the upper half. 

No. 2. Now fold the right-hand third of this sheet 
over the middle third. 

No. 3. Then fold the left-hand third over the middle. 

No. 4. Insert the folded letter into the envelope with 
the folded part toward the bottom of the envelope, so 
that the open edges will be near the flap. 


If you use a sheet as wide as the envelope is long, 
it will not require the first fold that is given the full- 
size sheet, but will be folded twice, as in Nos. 2 and 8. 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 269 


The four-page sheet, upon which social letters are 
often written, is folded by turning “the lower part 
over the upper. 


EXERCISE 60 


There should be in the classroom, supplied either by the 
school or by the pupils, samples of various kinds of stationery, 
both paper and envelopes. ! 

1. Take a sheet of paper approximately 84 inches by 11 
inches; fold it to fit an Coy ope 6? inches jong by 32 inches 
wide. 

2. Take a sheet about 84 by 64; fold it for a No. 64 
envelope (an envelope 64 inches long). 

3. Fold a sheet 8} by 11 to’go into a No. 10 envelope. 

4. Fold a sheet of social stationery, about 5¢ by 64, to 
fit an envelope about 54 by 34. 

5. Fold a sheet of business paper, memo size, 84 by 5%, to 
fit a No. 62 envelope. 

6. Fold a sheet 84 by 7% to fit a No. 62 envelope. (Fold 
about two inches of the lower part of the sheet over the upper 
part. Then proceed as with a regular letter sheet.) 


LESSON 61 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS; USE OF THE 
DICTIONARY 


In reading what you have written, you will often 
find that you have used some word which does not 
exactly express your meaning. You must search your 
memory for the right word. If you cannot think of the 

word you want, consult the dictionary. 


270 PART TWO : COMPOSITION 


Sometimes you will find that you have repeated 
a word two or three times within the space of a 
few lines. Although this repetition may sound awk- 
ward, you should let the word stand if it is necessary 
for clearness or for the exact expression of your mean- 
ing. Frequently you will find that you can substitute 


a word of similar meaning without sacrificing clear- 
ness, and that the substitution will improve the sound 


of your sentence. 

Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly 
the same meaning; as, courage, bravery; loving, af- 
fectionate. Antonyms are words that are opposite in 
meaning; as, good, bad; ignorant, educated. Good 
dictionaries will give you all the information you need 
about synonyms and antonyms. The larger diction- 
aries give the synonyms of a word, and explain the 
different shades of meaning of these synonyms when 
it is desirable to make a distinction among them. 


EXERCISE 61 
. L. Write ten pairs of synonyms. 
“Il. Write ten parrs of antonyms. . 
III. Look up the meanings of these words in Webster’s 
Secondary School Dictionary or some other good dictionary of 
similar scope. Learn all the synonyms you can for each of 


these words, and be able to tell the difference in meaning 
between the word here given and its synonyms: 


rch contemptible examination 
powerful contemptuous spite 

honest booty cross (adjective) 
honesty animated awkward 


frank (adjective) massacre allow 


* 


ARGUMENT 271 


IV. By the help of the dictionary, distinguish in meaning 
between the words in the following pairs and use each word 
an a sentence: 


house, home healthy, wholesome 
famous, notorious knowledge, wisdom 
character, reputation continuous, continual 


LESSON 62 
ARGUMENT 


THe PRACTICAL VALUE OF STUDYING SANITATION 


The boy who learns to kill mosquitoes and to spare the 
ladybirds will probably not be richer for it when he comes to 
make his will; but the community that learns to kill it¢ 
mosquitoes and spare its ladybirds will surely have an in. 
calculable balance in its favor. The occasional individual 
who learns to avoid spitting is still exposed to infection from 
the spitting of others; but the community that first elimi- 
nates spitting and pencil-licking will probably be the first to 
eliminate the white plague. 

If an understanding of the relations of bacteria and ven- 
tilation and diet and work to people’s health will lead a gen-— 
eration of citizens to oppose with all their might the building 
of unsanitary dwellings, the operation of ill-ventilated fac- 
tories, the marketing of unwholesome foods and quack 
remedies, and the overworking of men, women, and children, 
—such an understanding is worth all it can cost. No other 
knowledge given to all the children of a nation will do so 
much for the general welfare as an appreciation of the rela- 
tions between man and the organic factors of his environ- 
ment. 

BENJAMIN GRUENBERG 


272 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


In the above paragraphs, the writer is giving reasons, 
or arguments, why boys and girls should study sani-. 
tation. He argues that if the children are taught the 
need of killing mosquitoes, for example, the community 
in which they grow up will in time kill its mosquitoes. 
He wishes to convince the reader that an understand- 
ing of the principles of sanitation is of the greatest 
importance for the welfare of the nation. 


EXERCISE 62 


1. State several good reasons for the study of geography. 

2. Give some good reasons for the study of history. 

3. What are the best reasons you can think of why one 
should acquire a good handwriting? 

4, Give reasons why a girl should learn to cook. 

5. Give reasons why a boy should learn something of 
carpentry. . 

6. What are Mr. Gruenberg’s illustrations of the value of 
studying sanitation and hygiene? 


LESSON 63 
DESCRIPTION OF A PAINTING 


The frontispiece of this book is a reproduction of a 
painting entitled ‘‘A Reading from Homer” by Law- 
rence Alma-Tadema, who was distinguished especially 
for his pictures on Greek and Roman subjects. He was 
a native of the Netherlands, but spent a large part of 
his life in England. 

Turn to the frontispiece and study it. The picture 


ARGUMENT 273 


shows a group of young people listening to one of the 
famous stories of Greek heroes that had been told in 
ancient times by the bind poet Homer. The man at 
the right is reading the story from a scroll, such as 
was used long before the days of book-making. 

Notice the Greek costumes, the harp, and the view 
of the sea in the background. What stories of Homer 
do you recall—about Achilles, the Trojan War, or the 
adventures of Ulysses during his wanderings after the 
war? Choose the story which you imagine the people 
in the picture are listening to. 


EXERCISE 63 


Write a description of Alma-Tadema’s ‘‘A Reading from 
Homer.” 


LESSON 64 


ARGUMENT 


THe Stupy or AGRICULTURE 18 MorE VALUABLE THAN 
NATURE STUDY 


When the pupil is sent to study the tree or the insect, 
the most that he can do is to observe and record. This is 
all good in its way, but the tree, the bird, and the insect 
are sufficient unto themselves, or, at least, are in no sense 
dependent upon the boy, nor are they of much consequence 
to him or his. 

When, however, the boy is set to studying the pig, the 
matter of utility at once enters in as a factor of the problem. 
The pig is worth something and the boy can see it. He can 
see how the bare existence of the pig is dependent upon 
regular feeding which he himself may give; and how the 


274 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


pig, when he is brought to a finish, is not only capable of con- 
tributing to the support of the body, but can be sold for money 
with which the boy may possess himself of something dear 
to. his heart. He sees, in other words, how he himself may 
influence the production of pigs; and if he has even a fair 
share of the creative activity which most boys possess, it 
will be stimulated into action by the prospect. 

If he is set to studying the cow and her milk, especially 
if he learns how to compare one kind of milk with another, 
or if his attention is even directed to the conditions under 
which different kinds may be produced, he sees in concrete 
ways how Nature behaves in her workshop, what it is that 
Nature is doing day by day, and how it is that these 
activities are connected with the affairs of men. He can~ 
not help seeing how the family that owns good cows has an 
advantage in the world over those whose cows are poor or © 
ill-fed. 

If he is set to studying corn, he knows at once that he is 
dealing with a crop whose management is in the hands of 
man; with something that does not exist for itself alone 
and would not and could not exist except for man’s at- 
tention. 

All this helps to stimulate activity and productive energy 
on the part of the child, which is one of the things we need 
to nourish when we take children out of real life for a con- 
siderable length of time and put them into the school- 
room. 

EUGENE DAVENPORT 


Professor Davenport is here trying to prove that the 
study of agriculture is of more value than nature study. 
A complete outline of his argument would be somewhat 
like the following: 


DEBATING 275 


The study of agriculture is more valuable than nature 
study 


I. Because agriculture stimulates activity that is of value 
in connection with actual life. 


_1. In studying trees, birds, and insects, the pupil merely 
observes and makes records. 
2. In studying pigs, the pupil sees that he can help in 
raising pigs and can profit by the sale. 
3. In studying cows, he sees that he can learn how to 
get the best kind of milk. 
4. In studying corn, he sees that the farmer can help 
to secure a successful crop. 


You will see that this selection from Professor Daven- 
port makes one main argument for the proposition 
which he is trying to prove. He gives one illustration 
of the lack of practical value in nature study, and 
three illustrations of the connection between agri- 
culture and life which gives to agriculture its interest. 


EXERCISE 64 


1. Give three or four statements to show that summer 
is a more pleasant season than winter. 

2. Give three or four illustrations to show that winter is 
preferable to summer. ‘ te 


LESSON 65 _— 
DEBATING 


A debate is the discussion of a subject bout which 
there is a difference of opinion. 

In conducting an organized discussion, or debate, 
certain rules are generally followed. First, a statement 


276 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


of the subject to be debated is made; as, ‘‘ Resolved, 
that. we should establish a school paper.” Arguments 
which aim to prove that the statement is true are on 
the affirmative side; those tending to prove that the 
statement is not true are on the negative side. Speakers 
are chosen for each side, to give the arguments for that 
side. Each speaker, at the end of his talk, sums up 
what he has said. Sometimes each debater is allowed — 
to speak twice—once to give the arguments for his 
side and once to answer those of his opponents. 

Let us suppose that a debate is to take place in the 
eighth grade of the small town of Floralhurst. The 
question for debate is: Resolved, that the school distri 
of Floralthurst should vote bonds for the erection of a new 
school building. Although each person taking part in 
the debate argues on only one side of the question, he 
studies the arguments for both sides. He gets as many 
facts bearing on the proposition as he can. He is 
careful to verify every assertion he intends to make. 

Let us consider how a speaker for the affirmative 
side prepares himself. After he has consulted the 
superintendent, the teachers, perhaps some members 
of the Board of Education, and others who are well- 
informed on the educational situation in his town, he 
reviews carefully all that he has learned. He selects 
the strongest arguments presented by those who favor 
building a new school. It is possible that he may think 
of some good reason that no one else has advanced. 
Then he arranges his arguments in the best form that 
he can. He is careful not to run two arguments to- 
gether and not to put under two headings the state- . 
ments that really belong under one. 


DEBATING 277 


He writes a clear brief statement of each of his argu- 
ments, which may appear like this: 


Floralhurst should have a new school building 


1. Because the number of children going to school has 
increased so much that the present building is badly over- 
crowded. 

2. The school playground is not large enough to allow all 
the pupils necessary exercise. 

3. The present building is located in the east part of 
town, making too long a walk for pupils living in the 
west part. 

4. Our building has no gymnasium and no assembly 
room. 

5. Floralhurst can afford to erect a new building as it has 
no school debt. 


From this outline, or brief, the speaker would build 
a speech somewhat like that which follows. He might 
write out his speech in full, being careful to use simple 
language and to make every statement so clear that it 
cannot easily be misunderstood. After writing the 
speech, correcting it, and making a clean copy, he might 
commit it to memory. 

But instead of writing the arguments in the exact 
words in which he meant to give them, the speaker 
might stand with his outline in hand and practice his 
speech many times. He would probably not use exactly 
the same words each time, but he would become 
familiar with his arguments. They would be clear in 
his mind, and on the day of the debate he would be 

prepared to speak from brief notes. 


278 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


AN ARGUMENT FOR A NEw Scuoout BuILpING 
IN FLORALHURST 


The School District of Floralhurst should vote bonds for 
the erection of a new school building because the present 
building is badly overcrowded. We have twelve rooms and 
an enrollment of 606. This makes an average of about 
fifty pupils to each room. This is far too many for good work, 
for comfort, or for health. A room so crowded cannot be 
‘well ventilated. A new building would enable the district 
to put the proper number of pupils in each room. We would 
then have room for more teachers, and each teacher would 
have only as many pupils as she could properly teach. 

The playground of our present building is much too small 
for the number of pupils. This makes it impossible to play 
many games we would like to play. The crowded condition 
of the playground is also the cause of accidents. If we 
build a new school, it will have a good playground; ana 
there will then be plenty of room on our playground for the 
pupils who remain at this building. 

Our present building is in the east part of town. ‘The 
pupils who live in the west part of town have too long a 
walk to school; many of them have to walk fifteen blocks, 
or even more. The new building could be built in the west 
part of town. We should then have schools located con- 
veniently for all. 

Our present building has no gymnasium and no assembly 
room. ‘These could be provided in a new school building. 
With the pupils living in the west part of town in the new 
building, there would be vacant rooms here. The superin- 
tendent and the president of the school board say that it 
would then be possible to take down a partition between 
two of the rooms of this building and make a very good 
assembly room. By a similar change, a room could be . 
made for gymnastic exercises. 


LETTER WRITING 279 


Floralhurst can well afford to erect another school. It is 
as wealthy as the average town of its size. Our school 
district is out of debt. The last of the bonds which we 
owed on this building were paid off two years ago. 

Therefore, because our school building is overcrowded; 
because the playground is not large enough; because the 
children from the west part of town have too far to come; 
because we have no gymnasium and no assembly room; 
because Floralhurst is wealthy and has no school debt, we 
believe that the school district should vote bonds for a new 
building. 


EXERCISE 65 
1. How would you gather material on the question for 


debate in this lesson? 

2. What are other ways of gathering material on a different 
kind of question? 

3. For a young speaker, what are the advantages of writing 
the speech in full and committing it to memory? 

4, What are the advantages of fixing the arguments 
firmly in your mind without trying to memorize the exact 
words to be used when you rise to speak? 


LESSON 66 


LETTER WRITING 


EXERCISE 66 


Write a letter of friendship, observing all the forms. Keep 
in mind the aim of a friendly letter—to interest the person 
addressed and to give him pleasure. It will be all the better 
if the letter written for this exercise is a real letter which 
you intend to mail after it has been corrected and copied. 


280 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


LESSON 67 
DICTATION 


Lexington, Virginia, December 14, 1869. 
General J. B. Gordon, President, 
Southern Life Insurance Company, 
Atlanta, Georgia. © 
My dear General: 

I have received your letter of the 3d inst., 
and am duly sensible of the kind feelings which prompted 
your proposal. It would be a great pleasure to me to be 
associated with you, Hampton, B. H. Hill, and the other good 
men whose names I see on your list of directors, but I feel 
that I ought not to abandon the position I hold at Washing~ 
ton College at this time, or as long as I can be of service to it. 
Thanking you for your kind consideration, to which I know 
T am alone indebted for your proposition to become president 
of the Southern Life Insurance Company, and with kindest 
regards to Mrs. Gordon and my best wishes for yourself, I am 

Very truly yours, 
R. E. Lee 


EXERCISE 67 


Study General Lee’s letter carefully and write it from dic- 
tation. 


LESSON 68 
NOTES AND INVITATIONS 


NotTEs 


There are many occasions when, instead of writing 
a letter, we write a brief, informal message, or note. — 


NOTES AND INVITATIONS 281 


These notes are used when a person wishes to communi- 
cate with some one in the same office building or fac- 
tory, and on many other occasions. We sometimes 
have occasion to write a brief note to a neighbor and 
send it by a messenger. The written excuses brought 
by pupils who have been absent are sometimes notes 
rather than letters. 

A note should be written with attention to neatness, 
legibility, spelling, grammar, and -good form. It dis- 
penses with some of the parts of a letter. The following 
specimens illustrate the shortened form in which notes 
are written. 

1 
March 8 
Dear Miss Kincaid, 
George was ill yesterday and was not 
able. to be at school. Please excuse his absence. 


Yours respectfully, 
Mary H. Lockhart 


2 
May 11 
Ben: | 
Hal and I have gone to Steen s Lake on our bicycles. 
We expect you to come on the afternoon train. We will 


meet you at the station. 
Everett 


3 
Dear Mrs. Colby, 

Will you kindty send me by Mary your 
recipe for orange cake? I will copy it and return it to you 
at once. I shall be greatly obliged. 

Kate Palmer 


282 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


INFORMAL INVITATIONS 


Informal invitations are simply notes. The place 
and the date are usually written in the lower left- 
hand corner. The year need not be given, and the day 
of the month is sometimes spelled out instead of being 
written in figures. 

1 
Dear Martin, 

Mother wants you to come to see us again be- 
fore you leave town. We should be glad to have you take 
dinner with us and spend the evening next Tuesday, the 
fourth. ie 

Wilson King 
Montrose, 
September the first. 


2 
Dear Wilson, 

I thank you and your mother for your kind in- 
vitation. I shall be glad to take dinner with you next 
Tuesday evening. | : 
Martin R. Adams 
Montrose, | 

September the second. 


FoRMAL INVITATIONS 


Formal invitations and replies are written in the 
third person. They have no heading, salutation, or 
signature. The date, written in words instead cf fgures, 
is placed in the lower left-hand corner. Be careful not 
to use the first or second person in these notes. 

The reply to a note of invitation should always be 


NOTES AND INVITATIONS 283 


written in the same form as the invitation. Use the 
formal style only when the invitation is in that form. 


1 


Mr. and Mrs. Vernon Reed request the pleasure of Miss 
Black’s presence at dinney Monday evening, October the 
twelfth, at seven o’clock. 

Hillcrest 

October the sixth 


2 


Miss Black accepts with pleasure the kind invitation of 
Mr. and Mrs. Vernon Reed for Monday evening, October 
the twelfth, at seven o’clock. 

11 Jefferson Street 

October the seventh 


EXERCISE 68 


1. You have arranged to spend Saturday fishing with a 
friend, but are called away in haste on Friday evening. 
Write a note to your friend, explaining why you cannot keer 
the engagement. 

2. Write an informal invitation. 

3. Write an informal acceptance. 


4, Write an informal note expressing regret because you 
are unable to accept an invitation. 


5. Your elass at school is to give a special program for 
Thanksgiving or some other occasion. Your teacher and 
your principal permit you to invite the grade just below 
yours to be present at the program. In the name of the 
teacher and pupils of your class, write a formal invitation 
to be read to the pupils of the grade below. 


284 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


6. Write a formal acceptance in the name of the teacher 
and pupils of the grade below yours, replying to the invita- 
tion. 


7. Your rural school is to have a school fair. The parents — 
of each pupil are to be invited. In the name of the school, 
write a formal invitation to your parents. 


8. The pupils in your room have decided to have a picnic 
and to invite your teacher. Decide whether you prefer to 
send her a formal or an informal invitation; then write the 
invitation. 


LESSON 69 


ARGUMENT 


EXERCISE 69 


1. Make an outline giving three or four good arguments 
on each side of the first statement, or proposition, on page 
285. State each argument in a clear and complete sentence. 
Be sure that you do not put down.as a separate argument 
something included in another heading though stated in dif- 
ferent words. 


2. Make outlines giving a few arguments on each side of 
five other propositions selected from the list on page 285. — 


3. Select the proposition that you have found most inter- 
esting. Think over your outline carefully and write a para- 
graph on each heading, or argument. In expanding your 
arguments, you must prove the statement that you have 
made. You may give examples or instances, and may quote 
figures or facts to support the statement. In Professor 
Davenport’s argument for the’ teaching of agriculture rather 
than nature study (page 273), he gives four illustrations of 
his statement that agriculture is more practical than nature . 
study. 


DEBATING 285 


4. Prepare a talk to the class on the proposition selected. 
With your outline in hand, make your speech. If you have 
studied the question thoroughly, you will have little trouble 
in finding something to say in developing your points. 


LESSON 70 
DEBATING 


EXERCISE 70 


Some of the following subjects may be used for oral 
debates. These debates may be conducted in different ways. 
If two or three represent each side, it must be arranged that 
each speaker will devote his time to a special point so that 
the speeches will not repeat or overlap. If the debate is 
open to all in the room, everybody must be prepared to give 
a brief talk on the side of his choice, when called upon. 


PROPOSITIONS FOR ARGUMENT 


1. Resolved, that we should establish a school paper. 


2. Resolved, that military drill should be given in grammar 
schools. 


3. Resolved, that women should be given the right to vote. 

4. Resolved, that our school should form a baseball team. 

5. Resolved, that football should be played in this school. 

6. Resolved, that the army and the navy of the United 
States should be increased. 

7. Resolved, that the opportunities for young men at the 
present time are greater than they were a half century ago. 

&. Resolved, that all the men of the United States, unless 


286 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


physically disqualified, should be required to serve for two 
years in the army. 

9. Resolved, that the President of the United States shouid 
be elected for six years and should not be eligible to succeed 
himself. 


LESSON 71 


TELEGRAMS 


* Form 1206 
|_CLASS OF SERVICE DESIRED —— a 
Fast Day Message 
Day Letter 
Night Message 
Night Letter 


X oppo- 
desieed; 


~~ = should mark an 
je class of s ores 
Sia dtarene 
WILL 
FAST DAY MESSAGE. INEWCOMB CARLTON, PRESIDENT 


Send the ng owin, or telegram, subjectto the terms _ 
on bac f, rvhich are hereby agreed to 


Medora, Illinois, May 8, 1917. 


Charles S. Dean, 
1415 Harrison Boulevard, 


Kansas City, Missouri. 


Meet me at Union Station at ten o'clock 


Thursday morning. 


Raymond Oliver 


Brevity and clearness are the qualities a telegram 
should have. A fixed rate is charged for ten words, and 
each additional word costs extra. Night letters may be 
sent by telegraph for delivery the next morning, fifty 
words or less being transmitted at the rate charged for 
ten words by day. Day letters, which are taken with 


TELEGRAMS ; 287 


the understanding that their transmission is subordi- 
nated to that of regular telegrams, may be sent for one 
and one-half times the night letter rate. 


EXERCISE 71 


1. Flowers ordered as decoration for a school entertain- 
ment have not been received at the expected time. Write a 
telegram to the florist, asking if they may be expected in time 
to be used. 

2. Coming home from a visit, you have missed connections 
and will not arrive at the time when your parents expect you. 
Write a telegram to your father explaining the situation. 

3. A friend has written that he is to pass through your 
city and asks you to meet him at the station. Send him a 
night letter, asking him to arrange to stop over for a day’s 
visit. 

4, You receive a telegram making an offer of a position 
at a certain salary and are asked to reply by telegram. Write 
the telegram in which the offer is made. 


®. The salary offered is less than you can accept. Write 
a telegram in reply to the cfier. 


6. There has been a windstorm in which property was de- 
stroyed and people were injured. Send a telegram to your 
mother, who is away from home, telling her that the family 
are all safe and that your property is not damaged. _ 


7. In the absence of your father, Mr. J. C. Newell wants 
to buy a certain horse on the farm. Write a telegram to 
your father, asking if he will sell the horse and at what price. 


8. A bookseller finds that he must have at once twenty 
copies of Kipling’s “Just So Stories.’’ Send his telegram to 
Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, New York, or- 
dering the books. 


288 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


9. You find, on arriving at a town where you are to enter — 
a new school, that you have left behind the record of your 
previous grades. Telegraph home asking to have the record 
sent you, and telling where the papers are to be found. 

10. A speaker who was to make an address at the grad- 
uating exercises of your school has been taken ill two days 
before the date of the graduation. Send a night letter to 
another man, explaining the circumstances, and asking him 
if he can speak and what his terms for the service will be. 


LESSON 72 
WRITING ADVERTISEMENTS 


You know how attractive are many of the advertise- 
ments that appear in newspapers and magazines. A 
great many of these advertisements are the work of 
highly trained specialists and combine the arts of the 
writer, the illustrator, and the printer with the judg- 
ment of the business man. The simpler kinds of adver- 
tisements, however, can be written by any one after a 
little study and practice. 

Many of you will have need to employ the adver- 
tising columns of the papers to greater or less extent. 
The writing of brief advertisements is valuable train- 
ing in the selection of essential facts and in compactness 
of expression. | 

Study the advertisements that appear in this lesson. 
As a further preparation for the exercise which follows, 
every member of the class should bring to school a few 
' good short advertisements cut from newspapers or. 
magazines. 


WRITING ADVERTISEMENTS 289 


YOUNG MAN attending business college needs employ- 
ment outside school hours to save expenses; can do 
‘housework and tend furnace. Bell Grand 624, Home 
Main 1073. 


LOST: a Necklace—At the Lyric Theater or Sedgwick 
Courthouse, coral necklace, two strands graduated coral 
beads; liberal reward. Return to 793 Lombard St., Wichita, 
Kans. Phone Home West 127 


FOR RENT, WITH BOARD—One large, light room with 
adjoining dressing room. Southeastern exposure. Conve- 
nient to trains and trolley. Every convenience, including 
telephone. Reasonable rates. Mrs. Steen, Morse Road, 
Hillsdale. 


FOR SALE: 40 ACRES, 2 miles northeast of Pleasant Hill 
on Skaggs and Tuttle Roads; all smooth land; no waste 
or breaks; all in grass and meadow; new hay barn, no other 
improvements; best location in county; price $137.50 per 
acre; will carry $3,000 or more on terms. Frank K. Elkins, 
Pleasant Hill, Mo. 


EXERCISE 72 


1. You have lost a purse. Write an advertisement of 
your loss. 

2. You have found a purse. Advertise it. 

3 Write an advertisement for a pin, a watch, or some other 
article that has been lost. Describe the lost article accurately. 

4. Suppose that you desire to purchase a secondhand type- 
writer. Write a want advertisement, naming the make or 
makes that you prefer. 


290 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


5. Write an advertisement for some position that you 
would like to secure. Wa 


/ 6. You have a large hotbed and have raised more tomato, 
sweet potato, pepper, and cabbage plants than you need 
for your own use. You decide to try to sell your surplus by 
means of an advertisement in the local paper. Write the ad- 
vertisement, giving prices. 


7. Write an advertisement for a house to let. Describe 
the house truthfully and in such a way as to show its ad- 
vantages. 


8. Suppose that your school is to give a play. Write a 
_ short advertisement of the play. The advertisement should 
not only give the reader all the information he needs about 
the play, but should also help him to decide to attend. 


LESSON 73> 
LETTERS OF APPLICATION 


1224 North Twelfth Street, 
Minneapolis, Minnesota, 
June 9, 1918. 
Mr. Willard French, 
216 Lumber Exchange, 
Minneapolis, Minnesota. 
Dear Sir: 

I read in to-day’s “‘Tribune” your advertisement 
for an office boy. I should like to be considered an applicant 
for the place. 

I am fourteen years old and have just completed the 
eighth grade of the Whittier School of this city. For infor- | 
mation about my character and qualifications, I refer you to 


LETTERS OF APPLICATION 291 


Principal John D. Sullivan of the Whittier School and to Mr. 
Ross Foster, 2234 Channing Street, for whom I have worked. 
If you care to have me do so, I will call on you at any 
time that is convenient for you. 
| Yours respectfully, 
Robert Spore 


EXERCISE 73 


Study the letter given above, and using it as a model, apply 
for these positions: 


1. A boy who lives in the country will attend high school 
in town this fall. He hears that Mr. Charles 8. Bankhead, a 
grocer, needs a boy to work in his store after school in the 
afternoon and on Saturdays. Write a letter of application 
for this place. 


2: Y, 
BOY— Wanted, bright office boy; prefer one who can use 
the typewriter; permanent position. Address G, 154, Star. 


3. 

MAN—Wanted a bright young man, 18 to 25 years, who 
can operate typewriter and do clerical work in a wholesale 
house; good opportunity for the right person; $9 to start; 
give references or schooling. Lemmon & Vanburg, 750 
Kellar St., Los Angeles, California. 


4. | 
WANTED—a clerk, 16 or 17, who knows a little type- 
writing; address with pen, giving references. A. B. Jaeger- 
sen, 802 Fidelity Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y. 


~ 
OFFICE BOY—Wanted; one who has had experience in 
filing and mailing letters; answer in own handwriting, stating 


& 


292 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 


age, experience, reference, and salary wanted. Address 
G, 276, Star. 


6. 

CLERK—Young lady wanted for accounting department of 
manufacturing company. Must be good penman, rapid 
and accurate at figures. Give age and reference. Address 
Box 148, Herald. 


LESSON 74 


STUDY OF A SPEECH 


WASHINGTON 


America has furnished to the world the character of Wash- 
ington! If our American institutions had done nothing else, 
that alone would have entitled them to the respect of man- 
kind. 

Washington! ‘‘First in war, first in peace, and first in 
the hearts of his countrymen!’ Washington is all our own! 
The enthusiastic veneration and regard in which the people 
of the United States hold him, prove them to be worthy of 
such a countryman, while his reputation abroad reflects the , 
highest honor on his country. I would cheerfully put the. 
question to-day to the intelligence of Europe and the world: 
What character of the century, upon the whole, stands out 
in the relief of history, most pure, most respectable, most 
sublime? And I doubt not that, by a suffrage approaching 
to unanimity, the answer would be, ‘‘ Washington!” 

To him who denies or doubts whether our fervid liberty 
can be combined with law, with order, with the security of 
property, with the pursuits and advancement of happiness; 
to him who denies that our forms of government are capable 
of producing exaltation of soul and the passion of true glory: — 


THE MINUTES OF A MEETING 293 


to him who denies that we have contributed anything to the 
stock of great lessons and great examples—to all these I reply 
by pointing to Washington. 

DANIEL WEBSTER 


The above speech is a part of the oration delivered 
by Daniel Webster at the dedication of the Bunker Hill 
Monument at Boston, June 17, 1843. Eighteen years 
earlier he had delivered another masterly oration at 
the laying of the cornerstone of the monument. His 
speeches had strength and dignity, and were remark- 
able for clearness of statement. 


EXERCISE 74 


I. Find in the dictionary the meaning of any words in this 
speech you cannot define, and be able to give these definitions 
in class. ; 


II. Commit the speech to memory and repeat it standing before 
the class. 


LESSON 75 
THE MINUTES OF A MEETING 


Every club, society, corporation, or other organiza- 
tion keeps a record of each of its meetings. This record, 
written by the secretary, is called the minutes; it shows 
everything of importance that took place at each 
meeting. The minutes are referred to for the purpose 
of settling any disputed point as to what was done or 
agreed to by the society. They should, therefore, be 
accurate and should be written fully, simply, clearly. 

At each meeting, the minutes of the previous meeting 


294 rART TWO: COMPOSITION 


are read by the secretary, and the president inquires if 
there is any objection to them. If there is no objection, 
the president says, ‘There being no objection to the 
minutes, they stand approved as read.”’ If any member 
thinks that there is a mistake or an omission in the 
minutes, he rises, addresses the president, and calls 
attention to it. If the correction suggested ought to be 
made, the president orders the secretary to change the 
minutes accordingly. ‘The minutes are then signed by 
the president and the secretary. | 

Here are the minutes of a meeting of the Audubon 
Society in a public school: 


The Audubon Society of the Hawthorne School met in 
Room 12, Thursday afternoon, May 1, at-three o’clock. The 
roll call showed twenty-five members present. 

After a song was sung, Charles Sedgwick gave a talk on 
“The Baltimore Oriole.’”’ Mary Harwood read a paper on 
“The Value of Birds to the Farmer.” 

On motion of George Hamilton, a committee of three was 
appointed to report the number of bird houses put up this 
spring in the neighborhood of the school and the names of 
the persons who put them up. The President appointed as 
this committee George Hamilton, Edith Sayre, and Doro- 
thy Hemphill. 

The Treasurer, Carl Jacobi, made a report Pee that 
there was $2.40 in the treasury and that there were unpaid 
dues amounting to 50 cents. 

There being no further business, the society adjourned to 
meet Thursday afternoon, May 15. 

William Parmalee, President 
Frances Cook, Secretary 


- 


THE MINUTES OF A MEETING 295 


EXERCISE 75 


_ 1. Write the minutes of a real or supposed meeting of a 
society organized in your school. 

2. Write the minutes of a meeting of a debating society 
organized in the Franklin Rural School. Give the question 
for debate, the names of the debaters, the names hl the judges, 
and the winning side. 

3. Suppose that there is an athletic association i your 
school. Write the minutes of a meeting at which new officers 
were elected for the next term of three months. Give the 
names of the officers elected and the positions to which they 
were chosen. 


SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS IN WORD STUDY 
AND COMPOSITION 


WORD STUDY 
LESSON 1 
FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY 


How are the words in the dictionary arranged? 
Divide your copy of the dictionary into approximately 
three equal parts, by putting slips of paper in where 
the words beginning with. H and Q appear. List the 
initial letters of words in your three sections as follows: 


AB CDi 
HIJKLMNOP 
Q BST UWewW X Yee 


EXERCISE 1 


In which third of the book will you look for each of the 
following words? 


synonyms derivation reed 
enunciation principle capital 
wring legible wholly 
frieze berth hoarse 
gilt strait kernel 


Hold a contest to find out which member of the class can | 
turn in the shortest time to each of the above words. 
296 


' FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY 297 


There are so many words with the same initial 
letter that you will lose time in locating words in the 
dictionary unless you understand that they are ar- 
ranged according to the letters following the first letter. 

Suppose you wish to arrange in alphabetical order, a 
group of words beginning with de, du, da, dr, di, dw, 
do. You will write them according to the alphabetical 
order of the second letter in each word, thus: 


day 
delightful 
digestion 
doleful 
drew 
dubious 
dwarf 


In arranging, or finding in the dictionary, several 
words beginning with the same group of letters, you 
can locate them according to the alphabetical order 
of the first letter not common to all the words. Thus, 
if you are looking up words beginning with den, deb, 
des, and dew, you will find them in this order: deb, del, 
den, des, dew. 

By looking at the two guide words at the top of the 
dictionary pages, you can tell whether a word you are 
looking up comes on that page. These guide words 
indicate the first and last words on a given page. 


EXERCISE 2 


I. Arrange the following words in alphabetical order. 
First note that all the words begin with det, dev, des, or dew. 
List the words that fall within each of these groups, and 


298 _.. SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


then alphabetize one group of words at a time. Finally 
determine the order for the different groups. 


’ detective detest determine 
Deuteronomy desire destination 
destruction determination detain 
devilfish detour develop 
devastate devil destroy / 


II. Think of words beginning with F, J, D, T, N, ete., 
and time yourself in finding each in the dictionary. Try 
to estimate the location of a word so as to open at once to it. 
Practice until you feel prepared to locate easily any one of 
a list of words which your teacher may dictate to the class. 


LESSON 2 
THE TREASURE HOUSE OF WORDS 


Did you ever stop to consider the number and 
variety of words in the English language? We have 
simple words and bookish words for the same thing, 
as building, edifice; sweet-sounding, mellifluous. We 
have familiar words and dignified words: dad, father ; 
blubber, weep. : 

We have many words made from one main word by 
the use of prefixes, as noble, nobly, nobility, ignoble ; 
and we have words which may be used as a part of 
compound words. Thus butter may be used with 
other words to form the compounds butterfly, butter- 
knife, butterball, butterscotch, butterfingers. We have 
general words, as things, do, bird, that may apply to 
many kinds of ideas, and very exact words that apply 
to one particular thing, as tongue, to telephone, orvole. 


THE TREASURE HOUSE OF WORDS - 299 


There are hosts of words to choose from when we 
want to convey a certain idea. Sometimes we will 
choose the word most pleasing to the ear; we may 
choose hushed or quiet rather than a word containing 
many s sounds as noiseless. We may choose a picture 
word in preference to another, as to tower instead of 
to stand high. We may choose a vigorous, expressive 
word, as gaunt, gay, instead of the words thin and 
happy that have been used so often as to lose life and 
freshness. From the many words that give an idea 
of a slight sound, we may choose the one carrying the 
shade of meaning we have in mind, as tinkle, click, 
swish, murmur. 

This bountiful store of English words is in direct 
contrast to the slender store that less civilized people — 
have. They have to make one word serve many uses 
and do not try to express shades of meaning. The 
president of a certain university is quoted as saying, 
“The greatest possession a boy or girl can have is the 
English language.” 

We know that an unabridged dictionary contains 
about 500,000 words, which make up the English 
language, but we have taken only the first step in 
possessing the language when we buy a dictionary. 
How did the early settlers in the West lay claim to a 
free tract of land, to make it legally theirs? They had 
actually to live on it for a certain length of time. So 
if you want to possess the language, you must live in 
close touch with it — with those who write or speak 
it well —‘and on every opportunity you must use the 
words and expressions you want to make yours. If 
no one cared about increasing his vocabulary and 


300 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


using correct expressions, our mother tongue would in 
time shrink to a few garbled, overworked words. 
Only while a language is in use, is it alive. 

There are many advantages in adding to your 
vocabulary. To increase your knowledge of words 
means to increase your circle of friends, in books, 
magazines, and daily living. It means the discovery 
of new interests and means of livelihood, since every 
fresh pleasure and bit of reliable information makes 
a person more interesting and more valuable to others. 
It means, furthermore, that you can express yourself 
with power, charm, accuracy, or conviction — whatever 
you desire. 

The following exercises will show you something of 
the treasures of words already at your command, and 
the possibilities of adding to them. 


EXERCISE 3 


I. To test your present store of words, write all the words 
you can think of belonging to each group mentioned below. 
Allow five minutes for each group. 


1. Exact words. 
Adjectives describing sound. 
Short words and long words expressing the same idea. 
Words that bring pictures to your mind. 
Verbs indicating quick action of different sorts. 
Pleasant-sounding words. 
Compound words made from book. 

_ Words made from polite by adding prefixes or suffixes. 


CONIA oT wh 


II. Here are some words meaning to cut: 


hew — chop sever pare 
amputate gash carve pierce 


THE TREASURE HOUSE OF WORDS 301 


prune slash reap bore 
mow cleave peel shear 


What is the shade of meaning conveyed by each and to 
what can you apply each? 


Ill. Think of five different ways in which you might, 
during a day, discover a word to add to your vocabulary. 
For instance, perhaps you bring in the newspaper every 
morning from the door and notice unfamiliar words in the 
headlines as you carry it, or perhaps you hear your mother 
ordering from the grocer something new to you. Bring in 
five words, each discovered in a different way, and tell the 
class how you found each word and what it means. You 
can find out how to use the word by asking some one at 
home or by looking it up in the dictionary. 


IV. Decide which word in each group below is more 
expressive or definite or pleasant sounding and use it in a 
sentence. Be able to tell the class why you chose the.word. 


hurried threw to shimmer 
dashed hurled to shine 

a plant afraid a tune 

a geranium timid a melody 
queer pleasant active 
shabby neighborly spry 
hungry said seat 
starved demanded bench 

the rain funny snowy 

the shower comical white 


B02. SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


LESSON 3 


WHAT THE DICTIONARY TELLS; SPELLING AND 
SYLLABICATION OF WORDS 


A new word cannot be useful to us until we can 
write it, say it, and know when to apply it. ‘There are 
three things, therefore, to be learned at once about a 
new word: its spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. 
We can find out by asking some one who knows or by 
consulting the dictionary. The surer guide is the 
dictionary. 


Spelling. 


Often you are perplexed about the spelling of some 
special form of a word that is not given in the small 
dictionaries. Large dictionaries, however, give the 
plural ending of a noun, and the past and ing forms of 
a verb. Thus, after ferry we find plu. -ries. Hence, 
we know that the complete plural is ferries. After 
drop we find dropped or dropt; dropping. ‘There are 
two correct forms for the past tense of drop, and, since 
dropped is given first, we can assume that it is the 
more common form. 


Syllabication. 


In writing a word, you frequently need to know how 
to divide it into syllables. The dictionary uses a 
small hyphen to indicate the syllabication of the 
words. It is considered poor form to divide short 
words of two syllables, as bucket, taxes, especially when 
the final syllable consists of only two or three letters. - 


SPELLING AND SYLLABICATION OF WORDS 303 
EXERCISE (4/ 


I. Prepare for the following exercises by consulting the 
dictionary or some other reference book. 


1. Spell the name of five religious denominations. 
2. Write the names of five states you find hard to spell. 
3. Give the plural of 


ally | alley witch 
circus tax cargo 
half mosquito thief 


4. Complete these words correctly by adding er, ar, or or: 


plumb- mot- 
elevat- gramm- 
eoll-. schol- 
bungl- edit- 
seni- col- 


5. Supply the missing letter in each of these words: 


differ-nce bull-t superintend-nt 
sep-rate cemet-ry machin-ry 


6. Supply the missing diphthong in each of these words : 
fr-ght h-ght bes-ge 
l-gue S-ze | g-lty 

7. Spell the past and ing forms of these verbs: 
swim dine win drawn 


attack drink he. dig travel 


Il. Which of the following words could not be divided? 
Which words would it be better form not to divide? Where 
could you divide the remaining words, if it was impossible 
to write the whole word at the end of a line? 


304 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


fudge asparagus sieve 

wishes saucer doesn’t 

baggage plowed towel 

elevator interesting capture 

beautiful knitting afraid 

disappoint taught Massachusetts 

naughty attempt purple 
LESSON 4 


WHAT THE DICTIONARY TELLS ;, PRONUNCIATION 


To know the pronunciation of a word, you must 
know where the accent falls, how the vowels and 
consonants are sounded, and what letters are not 
sounded. The marks indicating sounds are called 
diacritical marks. Study their names given below. 


_/macron ~ tilde a circumflex — bar 
- breve ee dat + cedilla 


If you know how to read these signs, you can under- 
stand the pronouncing guide given in parenthesis 
after words in the dictionary. Suppose you are looking 
up epaulet (sometimes spelled epaulette), the name 
given to shoulder badges on officers’ uniforms. Fol- 
lowing the word appears @’p6-let. The accented mark 
indicates that you give emphasis to the first syllable. 
To understand the sound of the e’s and o look at the 
key to diacritical marks at the foot of the page in a 
large dictionary. There you will find five common 
words to illustrate the five pronunciations of e and six 
words to illustrate the six pronunciations of o. The 
e in énd is marked like the e’s in epaulet; the o in érb is 
marked like the o which stands for au in the pronounc- 


PRONUNCIATION 305 


ing guide for epaulet. By supplying the sounds we 
know to correspond to the e in énd and the o in érb, we 
can pronounce epaulet correctly. 

Study carefully the key for vowel sounds to be found 
at the bottom of any page in a large dictionary. say 
over the words in class until you are sure you can 
distinguish the difference between sounds for the same 
letter or letters, and until the sounds indicated by the 
diacritical markings become familiar to you. 

In the front of a large dictionary you will find a 
chart for consonant sounds. Study it carefully. 


EXERCISE 5 


I. Bring to class a list of words not used in the dictionary 
key to illustrate each sound of a, @, 2, 0, U, ¢, Chip oe 

II. Where should the accent mark be placed over each 
of the following words? After you have looked the matter 
up, say each word over until the correct accent becomes 
natural for you. 


exquisite advertisement 
interesting illustrate 
hospitable idea 

theater mischievous 
pianist faucet 


III. Look up the pronunciation of each word below, 
noting the number of syllables and letters to be sounded. 
What vowels or consonants in these words are you apt to 
glide over, or to mispronounce? 


ya 


/ pumpkin rinse Y licorice’ perhaps 
Colorado column athlete poem 
attacked - guardian wrestle chocolate 


temperature usually governor history 


306 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 
LESSON 5 
WHAT THE DICTIONARY TELLS; MEANING | 


In looking up some words in the dictionary you will 
find different meanings, according to their use as 
various parts of speech. For instance, the word like 
as a verb means something quite different from like 
as an adjective. 

The large dictionary indicates the part of speech 
of each word by abbreviations following it. Thus, 
a. = adverb, v.t. = verb transitive. Look up in the 
front of a large Webster’s dictionary the meaning of 
the following abbreviations for parts of speech and be 
able to write the explanation of each from memory : 


adv. n. Webs sing. 
inter. pron. con]. plu. 


Knowing these abbreviations will help you to get 
the right meaning for a word. ‘Thus, if you want to 
define the word bluff, which is used as a noun in a 
certain sentence, you will look up the meaning that 
follows the abbreviation n.,-and will not waste time 
reading the meanings of bluff as an adjective or verb. 

Often in the explanation of a word as one part of 
speech you will find four or five different meanings. 
In most large dictionaries the different meanings are ~ 
numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., and the variations of meaning 
under any one of these general meanings are indicated 
by letters; as, 1. (a) —, (b) —, etc. It is one of the 
interesting facts about our language that a word such 
as head can be applied in many ways. It can apply to 
a part of the body, a certain place at the table, a 


MEANING OF WORDS 307 


vegetable growth (head of lettuce), a leader of a pro- 
cession, the person in power over others nk of the 
firm), ete. 

If you are asked to give briefly the meaning of a 
word without regard to some particular use of it, you 
will choose the more common meaning, which is 
usually given first in the dictionary. But if the word 
you are looking up is in a sentence, you must choose 
the meaning that best fits its particular use there. 

Certain words, or uses of a word, apply only to cer- 
tain professions or sciences. This is indicated in the 


_ dictionary by abbreviations. Thus: 


Chem. means a term used in chemistry. 
Med. means a term used in medicine. 


Certain meanings or words have now gone out of 
use and are, therefore, followed by the abbreviation, 
obs., meaning obsolete. Do not use an obsolete word 
in your own speech or writing nor one marked slang. 
Words followed by the abbreviation collog. (colloquial) 
or dial. (dialect) are limited as to use to certain localities 
or to informal speech. | 

After the explanation of a word, you will often find 
a list of synonyms which may be used in place of the 
word explained, or for particular uses of it. . For in- 
stance, gifted is a synonym for great. 


EXERCISE 6 Wy 
I. As what parts of speech may the following words be 
used? What is the difference in accent and meaning be- 


tween the different uses of each word? 


conduct attribute desert ally essay 
record contest address present perfect 


308 , SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


"II. Look up the meaning of each of these words and be 
able to explain the difference in meaning between the pairs 
often confused. Use each correctly in a sentence. 


have stay accept affect 
get stop except effect 
learn let emigrant capital 
teach leave immigrant capitol 
been plane fix pier 
bin plain fasten peer 
formerly loose canvas lend 
formally lose canvass loan 


III. Find two synonyms which might be used for each 
italicized word in these sentences. 


1. The result of the game was a disappointment. 

2. “That was an amusing incident,” said he. 

3. Harry runs very fast. 

4. We were-frightened by the funny sound so we called 
for mother. 

5. It took a large amount of courage to crawl up the 
ladder. | } 

6. Will you let me tell what a fine time I had? 


IV. Find four meanings for each of the following words. 
Also, bring to class sentences illustrating the different mean- 
ings of any two of the words. 


crisp (@.) good (a.) nice (a.) cunning (a.) scale (n.) ° 
y simple (a.) tool (n.) depend (v.2.) fast (@.) goose (n.) 


V. Turn to the list of words given in the first exercise on 
page 296. Look up the meaning of each word there. With 
what word of similar pronunciation but different spelling, 
are you apt to confuse each of those words? 


A BETTER ENGLISH CLUB MEETING 309 


LESSON 6 


A BETTER ENGLISH CLUB MEETING; NEW 
WORDS 


In many schools, the pupils have organized “ Better 
English Clubs,” with an appropriate constitution and 
by-laws. The meetings are held either after school or 
in the regular language period. In these clubs, many 
original programs are arranged for the rooting out 
of incorrect speech and the appreciation of good 
English. Such a club might make one of the month!y 
programs a campaign for new words. Announce Ww 
advance a list of perhaps ten words prepared by th 
program committee as worth adding to the vocabular x 
of the members. Or the list might consist of teri 
overworked words, with the synonyms which the club 
is to try to acquire. 

One row at the meeting is to give quotations from 
literature showing an effective use of each new word. 
Another row is to give charades illustrating some of 
the words. Another group in the class may prepare 
short talks relating personal experiences, humorous 
or otherwise, with the new words. An answer to roll 
call may consist of reports as to how many times each 
member has used the new words since they were 
announced. 

Those members of the club who can draw well may 
prepare cartoons or posters for the wall, illustrating 
the use of the words under discussion. Other members, 
clever at rhymes or imaginary dialogues, may read 
their jingles or dramatizations or scenes based on the 


310 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


words. Here are some suggestions for words to 
illustrate their use. 
I. Words to add to your vocabulary. 


frantic ‘enthusiastic \ courteous 
inquire leisurely \superfluous 
permit gracious stupid 
legible miserable ~ ~capable 
awkward good breeding ‘artificial 
retort eager perform . 
demand \\mimic identical 
diminish snobbish frantic 
resemble culture ‘occasionally 
‘extensive congested \hardship 
interrupt abundance \hesitate 


II. To illustrate the meaning of muserable sod 
courteous, you might have a dialogue between the two 
in which they complain of abuse or neglect. Give 
instances when Tom or Mary might have used them 
and didn’t, or when Tom or Mary used them without 
regard to their meaning. 

III. Certain members of the class might act out 
such words as snobbish, eager, or mimic in pantomime 
and ask the class to guess what word from the list 
they are illustrating. 

IV. A poster for hardship might show a sketch of a 
man living in a trench or in the polar regions without 
any comforts. The legend underneath might read, 
“How would you like to endure such hardships?”’ 

To demonstrate the words identical and similar, a 
pupil might place two history books exactly alike on 
the desk and two that are slightly different, and ex-. 
plain which adjective applies to each and why. 


AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 311 


A eartoon for frantic might show pupils making a 
mad dash to get into school before the last bell rings. 
The legend might read, ‘‘Why be one of the franti< 
crowd at 9 a.M.?”’ | 


PARAGRAPH STUDY 
LESSON 7 
AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 


TAKING THE WRONG SUIT-CASE 


Last summer my brother and I exchanged suit-cases. 
We had started off together, but Dick, who was going on a 
camping trip, left the train before I did. I was on my way 
to a house party at my cousin’s. Our suit-cases are very 
much alike, and Dick left the train in a great hurry. I 
«hought my suit-case felt very heavy but it was not. until I 
started to unpack that I realized that I had a boy’s camping 
clothes instead of my own pretty dresses. 


TAKING THE WroNG Sutt-CasE (amplified) 


My last summer’s vacation was almost spoiled by a capes 
accident. I had been invited to a house-party at my cousin’s, 
and Mother and I had spent two weeks getting my clothes 
ready. I had three new dresses, a blue gingham, a pink 
linen, and best of all, my first real party dress, of white 
net with pink rosebuds. It was the prettiest thing I had 
ever seen, and I could hardly wait for a chance to wear it. 

My brother Dick and I started on our vacations together. 
Dick was going on a camping trip with some school friends. 
He was to meet them at Greenford, two or three stations 
before mine. The train was badly crowded that morning. 
Dick found me a seat, but the woman who sat with me had 


312 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


so much baggage that Dick took my suit-case with his own 
to the rear of the car. The suit-cases are very much alike, 
although Dick’s is a little larger. 

When we reached Greenford, Dick came rushing down 
the aisle, ‘‘Here’s your suit-case, Anne,” he said, ‘Can you 
manage it? Have a good time. Give my love to Aunt 
Ethel and the girls. Say —there are the fellows on the 
platform now! Isn’t that great? Good-by, Anne!”’ and 
Dick was gone with a rush. 

I reached my own station an hour later. My cousin 
Dorothy met me. ‘Goodness, Anne,” she said, “your suit- 
case weighs a ton. What can you have in it?”’ | 

‘Clothes — new clothes,’ I laughed, “‘Oh, Dorothy, wait 
until you see my party dress.” 

The suit-case was heavy. Dorothy and I together carried 
it from the trolley car to the house and up to my room. 
There Aunt Ethel, Dorothy, and Elizabeth, all crowded 
around to watch me unpack. | 

Imagine my horror when I opened the suit-case and saw 
a boy’s camping outfit— heavy shoes, sweaters, rubber 
boots, and fishing tackle. I could have cried. The only 
things that restrained my tears were Dorothy’s promise 
to lend me her prettiest party dress and the thought of 
Dick’s face when he pulled out my white net and rosebuds. 


These two stories tell of the same incident. The 
first paragraph tells the story in the briefest form 
possible. The second story supplies details. | 

We say that this story is amplzfied or enlarged. 
Which do you think is more interesting? Notice just 
what details are. given in the second story. All the 
material for amplification is given in the first story, 
but it is emphasized and enlarged upon in the second. . 
For example, the phrase ‘‘my own pretty dresses ”’ 


AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 313 


in the first paragraph furnishes material for the first 
paragraph of the second story and brings out the 
contrast in the concluding paragraph. The clause 
“Dick left the train in a great hurry” is expanded to 
a paragraph of conversation as Dick arrived at his 
station. The explanation of the way the suit-cases 
came to be exchanged is also added in the second para- 
graph, and the heavy suit-case furnishes a subject for 
conversation between Anne and her cousin. _ De- 
scription, explanation, and conversation, then, are three 
ways of supplying detail to amplify a paragraph. 

Description is one of the easiest ways of amplifying. 
Ifa sentence reads, ‘‘The crowd cheered as the smallest 
racer dashed in ahead of the others,” there is material 
here for a good descriptive paragraph adding interesting 
details. For example : 


Cheer after cheer burst from the huge throngs of people 
pressed closely against the ropes around the race-course. 
It sounded like the roar of the ocean, or the beat of drums. 
Louder and louder grew the sound of triumph as the slender 
figure made its way, swiftly, lightly, and steadily, towards 
the goal. Past the heavy panting figure “of the champion ; 
past the swinging form of ‘“‘the giant’; ahead of them 
‘all he dashed. His brown hair waved in the breeze, his 
slim figure gleamed in the sunlight, his eyes shone with a 
steady purpose. Like an arrow straight from the bow, the 
smallest racer crossed the line. 


In this paragraph, notice the words or phrases that 
are amplified by description: The crowd cheered, the 
smallest racer, dashed, the others. 

Explanation is another useful means of amplifying. 
For example, in the sentence, “ Mother was obliged 


314 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


to leave us alone to finish the preserving of her prize 
peaches,”’ an opportunity for amplification is given by 
the words was obliged. An explanation is called for 
at the first reading of the sentence. A short paragraph 
telling the reason why Mother should leave the pre- 
serving to inexperienced hands may amplify the story. 
It might be the serious illness of a relative; it might 
be a sudden accident; it might be an unexpected and 
important visitor. At any rate, material enough for 
amplification can easily be ene 

Conversation is one of the most interesting means 
of amplifying a paragraph. You remember that in 
the beginning of ‘‘ Alice in Wonderland” Alice picks up 
her sister’s book and tries to read it, but throws it 
down because there are no conversations in it, — 
‘‘And what is the use of a book without pictures or | 
conversation?’’ Many of us feel much the same way. 
Conversations add to the interest of any story. We 
like to hear people talk, and we learn a great deal about 
people from their conversation. Note these sentences : 


The man refused to sell his dog because he was fond of him. 


‘“‘Sell Rover?” he said, ‘“‘Rover’s been my only friend 
through many long weary years. We’ve tramped city streets 
and country roads together, and I couldn’t sell him now when 
we’re both old and worn out.” 


The first sentence above states a simple fact. The 
man’s. conversation in the other sentences gives a 
chance to tell something about the friendship between 
the man and his dog, the reasons for it, and a littl?, 
of the man’s character in his loyalty to his friend. 


AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 315 


EXERCISE 7 


Amplify the following short paragraphs into longer storves, 
using description, explanation, or conversation. Be very 
careful to keep to the point of your story when you are 
amplifying it. Don’t let your descriptions lead you too far 
astray, nor your explanations take you back too far into the 
past. Be sure your conversations have some point. They 
should be interesting and sound like the talk of real people, 
and they should always have some connection with the story. 
Don’t let a character talk about his experiences in Australia 
when the story is about a wreck off the coast of New England. 


Outp Tom AND His MASTER 


A captain in the American army, noted for his bravery 
in action, had been very seriously wounded. As he lay in 
the hospital he asked the nurse if he might see his horse, 
old Tom, before he died. The two had been great friends. 
The surgeons consented, and old Tom was brought to the 
window. The captain was so glad to see his friend that he 
felt much more cheerful. After that the horse visited his 
master every day until the captain was better. 


Tue TEN TRAILS 


Two Indians once went hunting together. One, Hapeda, 
was fleet and strong. The other, Chatun, was weaker but 
very patient. They came upon the fresh track of a small 
deer. Chatun decided to follow it, but Hapeda scorned it. 
He sought bigger game. At night they met again. Hapeda 
had spent the whole day following many trails and had 
nothing. Chatun had stuck to the one trail and returned 
with the small deer across his shoulder. 


Cito SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


THE LESSON OF THE SPIDER 


Robert Bruce, the king of Scotland, had been defeated 
many times by his enemies. At last, in discouragement he 
fled for refuge to the woods. As he lay in his small cabin, 
he watched a spider spinning a web on the rafters. Six 
times the spider tried to reach a rafter and failed. But it 
persevered until the web was finished. Bruce realized that 
he too must try once more. 


| THe Curistmas I Recervep Srx Copies or “IvANHOER”’ 


I had wanted to read “Ivanhoe” ever since I heard my 
older brother and sister talk about the book. I told every one 
I hoped I would get the book for Christmas. On Christmas 
morning my packages looked very much alike. There were 
presents from my family and the ones that had come from 
my relatives and friends. The rest of the family stood 
around and watched me open my presents. Each of them was 
anxious to hear me exclaim at the present he had given me. 
They were as much surprised as I when I found six copies of 
the book. 

Tue Fare Soe Dipn’r Pay 

My older sister almost quarreled with the conductor on 
the trolley car last night. She told him she knew she had 
paid her fare. She even demanded a transfer at the end of 
the'line. He protested and said he knew she hadn’t given 
him a nickel. Finally he gave her the transfer. When she 
reached home, she found that her nickel had fallen into her 
umbrella instead of into the conductor’s hand. 


LESSON 8 
CONDENSATION OF PARAGRAPHS 


If you are asked to put into shorter form or condense . 
a story, the first thing to do is to read the story through 


CONDENSATION OF PARAGRAPHS 317 


very carefully. Decide on the point of the story, the 
time, the place, and the characters. Then write the 
story in the briefest possible form. After you have 
finished, read the original story again to be sure you 
have omitted none of the essential parts of the story. 
In the following selections, the story has been con- 
densed from over two hundred words to about seventy 
words. Read both versions of the story carefully. 


THE HuMBUG 


Professor Louis Agassiz was a great scientist who taught 
natural history at Harvard University. His skill in classify- 
ing birds, fish, or insects was remarkable. If he were given 
a single bone of a bird, he could tell instantly the kind of 
bird to which it belonged. He could do the same with fish 
and insects. 

The students in his classes delighted to test his knowledge 
and used to search everywhere for rare specimens of birds 
and insects for him to classify. His skill never failed. At 
last, however, they planned a joke on their teacher, whose 
sense of humor was as great as his wisdom. For weeks they 
worked in the laboratory, manufacturing a large and curious 
insect. On the morning of April first, it was finished and 
they placed it on his desk and waited to see what he would say. 

Agassiz walked in and gave a curious glance at the strange 
insect. : ; 

. “What kind of bug is it, sir?’’ asked one of the boys. 

The others crowded close to watch the professor as he 
examined the specimen. 

The eyes of the great teacher twinkled merrily as he looked 
into their eager faces. . 

“What kind of bug?” he asked. ‘Nothing uncommon or 
strange. Itis only a humbug, gentlemen. Common enough 
and quite harmless.” 


318 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


Ture Humsue (Condensed) 


The pupils of Professor Louis Agassiz, the famous teacher 
of natural history, delighted to search for curious specimens 
to test his remarkable skill in classifying birds, fish, or in- 
sects. For a joke, on April first, they placed on his desk a 
large strange insect that they had made. When they asked 
their good-natured teacher to classify it, his eyes twinkled 
as he said, ‘“‘It is only a humbug, gentlemen.” 


In the first of the stories, what takes the place of 
the phrase remarkable skill in classifying birds, fish, 
or insects, in the condensed version? The clause 
that they had made? The word good-natured? What 
parts of the original story are omitted in the second 
version? Are these parts necessary to understand 
the story? | 

You will find condensation a very useful thing in 
much of your work. In fact, you condense paragraphs 
every day. When you recite a history lesson, you do 
not repeat to the teacher every word and phrase and - 
sentence in a paragraph describing a campaign. If 
you have learned your lesson so that you understand it, 
you condense a paragraph in answer to her questions 
and tell her only the important facts about a subject. 
When you tell a story to the class, you do not tell 
them every word you have read. You pick out the 
most important parts of the story and tell it to them 
in a brief form. 

You may even condense the story of a whole book 
into two or three paragraphs and still make the story 
so interesting that your classmates will want to read 
the book. This is a most useful kind of condensation. | 


CONDENSATION OF PARAGRAPHS 319 


EXERCISE 8 


Read the following story carefully. Then tell tt to the class 
as briefly as you can without leaving out any of the important 
parts. 


A MatTTer or TUNE 


Things had been happening. Divisions were moving. 
There had been, or there was going to be, a stunt. 

A battalion marched over the hill and sat down by the 
road. They had left the trenches three days’ march to the 
north and had come to a new country. The officers pulled 
their maps out ; a mild breeze fluttered them ; yesterday had 
been winter and to-day was spring, but spring in a desola- 
tion so complete and far-reaching that you only knew of it 
by that little wind. 

It-was early March by the calendar, but the wind was 
_ blowing out of the gates of April. A platoon commander, 
feeling that mild wind blowing, forgot his map and began to 
whistle a tune that suddenly came to him out of the past 
with the wind. Out of the past it blew, and out of the South, 
_& merry spring tune of Southern people. Perhaps only one 
of those that noticed the tune had ever heard it before. An 
officer sitting near had heard it sung; it reminded him of a 
holiday long ago in the South. 

“Where did you hear that tune?” he asked the platoon 
commander. 

“Oh, a long way from here,” the platoon commander said. 

He did not remember quite where it was he had heard it, 
but he remembered a sunny day in France and a hill all dark 
with pine woods and a man coming down at evening out af - 
the woods, down the slope to the village singing this song. 
Between the village and the slope there were orchards all in 
blossom, so that he came with his song for hundreds of yards 
through orchards. 


320 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


‘A long way from here,”’ he replied. 

For a long while then they sat silent. 

“Tt mightn’t have been so very far from here,” said the 
platoon commander. “Tt was in France. But it was a 
lovely part of France, all woods and orchards. Nothing 
like this, thank God.” 

And he glanced with a tired look at the unutterable 
desolation. 

‘“Where was it?’’ asked the other. 

“Tn Picardy,” he said. 

“ Ayven’t we in Picardy now?”’ asked his friend. 

‘Are we?” he replied. 

“T don’t know. The maps call it Picardy.” 

“Tt was a fine place, anyway,” the platoon commander 
said. ‘There seemed always to be a wonderful light on the 
hills. A kind of short grass grew Qn them and it shone in 
the sun at evening. There were black woods above it. A 
man used to come out of them singing at evening.” 

He looked wearily round at the brown desolation of weeds. 
As far as the two officers could see, there was nothing but 
brown weeds and bits of brown barbed wire. He turned 
from the desolate scene back to his reminiscences. 

“He came singing through the orchards into the village,” 
he said. “A quaint old place with queer gables, called 
Ville-en-Bois.” 

“Do you know where we are?’’ asked the other. 

“No,” said the platoon commander. 

“T thought not,” he said. ‘‘Hadn’t you better take a 
look at the map?”’ 

“T suppose so,” said the platoon commander, and he 
smoothed out his map and wearily got to the business of | 
finding out where he was. 

“Can it be possible?” he said. ‘¢Ville-en-Bois !”’ 

Lorp DUNSANY. 


COMBINING IDEAS IN SENTENCES 321 
CORRECTIVE WORK IN SENTENCES 


LESSON 9 


COMBINING SEVERAL IDEAS INTO ONE 
SENTENCE 


EXERCISE 9 


I. Combine the following groups of short sentences into 
simple, compound, or complex sentences. In each ease, try 
to decide whether there is one main thought in the sentence 
or more than one. If there are two or more main thoughts 
or ideas to be expressed, your sentence will, of course, have 
to be compound. If there is only one main idea, your 
sentence should be simple or complex, in order to subordinate 
all the more unimportant ideas to the one main idea. The 
dependent ideas should be expressed as modifiers — either 
words, phrases, or clauses. 


Note these examples: 


The grocery store is on the corner. 
It was robbed last night. 

It is owned by Mr. Jackson. 

It was robbed after midnight. 


In the above group of sentences, there is one principal 
idea, the robbing of the grocery store. All the other ideas 
in the sentence should be made subordinate to it. The sen- 
tence will, therefore, read: The grocery store on the corner, 
which is owned by Mr. Jackson, was robbed after midnight last 
night. 

John is a good baseball player. 
He is also a good student. 
He stands first in his class. 


In the above group, there are two main thoughts; one, 
the fact that John is good at a game; the other, that he is a. 


322 


SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


good student.. Neither of the two is dependent on the other, 
and they should, therefore, be made into independent clauses. 
The sentence will be compound: John is a good baseball 
player and he is also a good student, standing first in his class. 


The bands were playing. 

The soldiers were marching. 

The parade had started. 

Johnny reached the corner. 

They are going on the three o’clock train. 
They are going to visit their uncle. 
Their uncle lives in New York. 

I do not like arithmetic. 

It is very hard. 

I have to study it. 

My uncle has a new automobile. 


_ My uncle traveled from California to Chicago. — 


He drove his automobile. 

It was a long hard trip. 

He enjoyed it. very much. 

The postman brings the mail every morning. 
The milkman delivers the milk. 

The paper boy leaves the paper. 

A great many people stop at our house. 
Little Margaret quarrels with her brother. | 
Her brother teases her. 

Her brother wants to take her toys. 


. The man is on his way home. 


The man missed his car. 

He will be late for dinner. 

I haveost a book. 

It was small. 

It was red. 

I do not know where I lost it. 

My cousin gave it to me for Christmas. 


SENTENCE MANIPULATION 323 


9. I like the autumn. 

It is sometimes-cold and rainy. 
I like to see the red leaves. 
I like to gather chestnuts. 

10. Roy has lost his dog. 
His dog was a fox-terrier. 
It was very clever. 
It knew many tricks. 
Roy feels very badly. 


I. Supply beginnings for each of the following ends of 
sentences. Explain whether the sentence you have made is 
simple, complex, or compound. 


1, —_——_—____~ J found her weeping bitterly. 
2 Dut thiswas impossible. 
3. ————___— where my mother told me to go.. 
4, —————_——— and we had to leave before the train 
started. . 
‘5. ————————_ before the telephone bell rang. 
6. ———————- and as a result nobody was allowed 
to take the examination. 
ib as easily as her own sister. 
8. ————————— or wants to do housework. 
9. ————————_ when everyone expected something 
different. 
10. ———————— who was my father’s oldest friend. 


LESSON 10 


CHANGING ONE KIND OF SENTENCE INTO 
ANOTHER 


1. Although the train is usually on time, it was an hour 
late to-day. 
The train is usually on time, but it was an hour late 
to-day. 


324 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 


2. The road, which was slippery, was hard for us to climb. 
The road was slippery, and consequently, it was hard 
for us to climb. 


Notice how in the above sentences a subordinate 
clause was changed to a principal clause without alter- 
ing the meaning of the sentence. The thought of a | 
sentence is sometimes clearer when the sentence is 
thus recast. On looking over your compositions, you 
will sometimes see that you have made a compound 
sentence out of two related thoughts when one of them 
is really dependent on the other and should be recast 
to make a dependent clause. For example, 


Compounp SENTENCE: He wanted to win and he tried 


hard. 


IMPROVED AS A Complex SENTENCE: He tried hard be- 
cause he wanted to win. ; 

Compounp SENTENCE: He turned and the bear started 
towards him. 

IMPROVED AS A Complex SENTENCE: As he turned, the 
bear started towards him. 


EXERCISE 10 


Change the following compound sentences to complex sen- 
tences and give the syntax of the dependent clauses in the new 
Bees 

“1. His friends knew his weakness and thee said he couldn’t 
stand the hardships of a lumber camp. 

2. You disobeyed and I shall punish you. 

3. The captain spoke to me and I couldn’t remember 
his name. 

4. You might try the new rules and then you might like. 
the game better. 


SENTENCE MANIPULATION 325 


5. The boys were deafened by the noise, but the guide 
went on his way without paying any attention. 

6. A great silence fell upon the crowd, and Abraham 
Lincoln stepped forward. 

7. He did not know his lesson and all the rest knew theirs 
perfectly and the teacher scolded him. 

8. There was a terrible fire in our town and Tommy cut 
his finger the same night. 

9. The soldiers came home and we had no school and 
\ there Was a parade and we marched in it. 


10. 


ERRORS OF SPEECH 


RULE 


. Subject of verb should be in 


nominative case. (pp. 105, 
116) 


. Attribute complement 


should be in nominative 
case. (p. 105) 


. Object of verb should be in 


106, 


objective case. (pp. 


115) 


. Object of preposition should 


be in objective case. (pp. 
106, 116) 


. A pronoun should agree 


with its antecedent in num- 
ber, gender, and person. 
(p. 116) 


. Avoid the wrong formation 


of noun or pronoun. (pp. 
114, 205) 


. A pronoun in the first person 


should not stand first in a 
series. (p. 149) 


. A split infinitive should not 


be used. (p. 55) 


. A verb should agree with its 


subject in number and per- 
son. (pp. 96, 141, 149) 


Present tense should not be 
used for past tense. (p. 149) 


CORRECT FORM 
John and he are good friends. 
Who do you think is coming? 


The first ones there were he and 
if 


Whom do you think I saw? 
Will you excuse Mary and me? 


They divided it between her and 
me. 

Whom are you looking for? 

Each boy picked up his books. 
(not their) 

The man whom I saw was lame. 
(not which) 


He saw it himself. (not hisself) 


You and I have been chosen 
captains. (not I and you) 


He told me to fill the basket 
quickly. (not to quickly fill) 


You were there. (not was) 
Mary and Jim have gone now. 
(not has) 


He gave us some nuts. (noi give)’ 


11, 


12. 


13. 


14, 


15. 


ii. 


18. 


Ey 


20. 


21. 


22. 


ERRORS OF SPEECH 


RULE 
Past participle should not be 
used for past tense. (p. 131) 


Past tense should not be 
used for past participle. (p. 
131) 


Avoid the wrong formation 
of tense. (p. 205) 


Avoid using unnecessary 
words. (pp. 148, 205) 


Don’t should not be used as 
the contraction of does not. 
(p. 140) 


. Aiv’t is an incorrect form. 


(p. 149) 


Indicative should not be 
used for subjunctive mood. 
(p. 149) 


Avoid the use of the wrong 
verb. (pp. 143, 145, 146, 
236, 237) 


Double negative should not 
be used. (pp. 140, 162) 


Personal pronoun them 
should not be used for pro- 
nominal adjective those. (pp. 
161, 221) 


Avoid the wrong form for 
the comparative or superla- 
tive of adjectives. (pp. 154, 
161) 


Comparative should not be 
used for superlative (p. 160) 


‘Bob lost a skate. 


S2¢ 
CORRECT FORM 

I saw him do it. (not I seen) 

I have gone swimming. (not I 
have went) 

The rain has driven us in. (not 
drived er druv) 

You ought to answer him. (not 


you had ought) 


He has red hair. (not has got) 
(not Bob, he 
lost) 


He doesn’t play fairly. 


It isn’t here. 
Am I not right? 


If I were you, I would go. 
was) 


(not 


See sentences for shall and 
will; lie and lay; sit and set; 
ete. 


He hasn’t said anything. (not 
he hasn’t said nothing) 


Those people are in a hurry. 


It was the most beautiful flower 
there. (not beautifulest) 


Who is tallest, Mary or John or 
Frank? (not taller) 


328 


RULE 
23. Superlative should not be 
used for comparative. (p. 
160) 


24. Avoid extravagant use of 
adjectives or adverbs. (p. 
161) 


25. Avoid the use of an adjec- 
tive for an adverb. (p. 161) 


26. Do not use here or there as 
an adjective. (p. 161) 


27. Place modifiers where there 
can be no doubt as to the 
words they are intended to 
modify. (pp. 243-245) 


28. Do not use like as a con- 
junction. (p. 164) 


29. Do not use a wrong part of 
speech because it sounds 
like the right one. 


ERRORS OF SPEECH 


CORRECT FORM 
Who is the taller, you or I? (not 
tallest) 


The game was interesting. (not 


awfully interesting) 


He writes well. (not good) 
I am very warm. (not real 
warm) 


Hand me that pole. (not that 
there pole) : 


He came back only yesterday. 
(not he only came) 


I did as he did. 
It seemed as if he would never 
come. 


You should have been there. 
(not should of) 

There was a dog in the road. 
(not they was) 


oo Fe W ND 


6. 


WRITTEN ERRORS 


. Do not punctuate part of a sentence as if it were a whole 


sentence. (p. 180) — 


. Do not run two or more sentences together. (p. 180) 
. Do not use and, then, and but too frequently. (p. 181) 
. Avoid a succession of short, choppy sentences. (p. 181) 


. Put the correct mark—period, exclamation point, or question 


mark—at the end of a sentence. (pp. 17, 183, 184) 
Place a period after abbreviations. (p. 183) 


Avoid errors in 


ae 
. The use of the apostrophe. (p. 184) 

. The use of the comma. (pp. 215, 238, 247) 
. The use of the colon. (p. 258) 

. The use of the dash. (p. 259) 

. The use of marks of parenthesis. (p. 259) 


The use of capital letlers. (p. 176) 


. The punctuation of compound sentences. (p. 225) 
. Writing quotations. (p. 211) 
. The division of a word at the end of a line. (p. 184) 


PARTS 


GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 


(The numbers refer to Lessons) 


THE SENTENCE 


Noun or Pronoun (1, 3, 5) 
Phrase (26, 29) 
Clause (39) 


Predicate’...%.... Verb (1, 4) 


Direct 
Object 


Spjectyik sey. 


Noun or Pronoun (17) © 
Phrase (26, 29) 
Clause (39) 
Adjective (18) 
Cenmplements ‘bute | Noun or Pronoun (18) 
p Attribute Phrase (24, 26) 
Clause (39, 40) 
Adjective (20) 
Objective ; Noun or Pronoun (20) 
Phrase (24) 
Adjectives (6, 8) 
Adverbs (9, 10, 11) 
Participles (23) 
Modifiers........ Infinitives (26) 
Nouns and Pronouns (80, 32) 
Phrases (18, 27, 29) 
Clauses (34-38) 
{ Conjunctions (16, 77) 
Connectives...... Pronouns (49, 77) 
Adverbs (74, 77) 
Independent Parts (16, 24, 27, 31, 43, 79) 


Meaning — Declarative, Interrogative, Imper= 
ative, Exclamatory (2) 


Form — Simple, Complex, Compound (34, 43) 


Classes 


GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 331 


THE NOUN 


Subject (3) 
Direct Object (17) 
Predicate Noun (18) ' 
TEES Objective Complement (20) 

oa eras Adjective Modifier (30) 
Adverbial Modifier (32) 
Object of Preposition (14) 
Independent (31) 


{ Common (8, 48) 
Proper (3, 48) 
Classes.......... Collective (48) 
Abstract (48) 


( Singular (50) 
Number. { Plural (50) 


NOUN 


Masculine 
Gender.. ; Feminine +; (51) 
Neuter 


First 
Second ; (52) 
Third 
Nominative 
Case.... 1 Possessive (53, 54, 
Objective 


Modifications..... 
Person.. . 


THE PRONOUN 


NISOG Fa bee scwis eo Same as those of the noun, and 
as connective (49, 77) 


Personal (49, 55) 
Compound Personal (55) 
Relative (49, 55) 
CIASSOS |... fae 22 Compound Relative (55) 
Interrogative (49, 55) 
Demonstrative (49) 
Indefinite (49) 


| Modifications..... Same as those of the noun 


PRONOUN 


332 GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 
THE VERB 


To assert action, aH Predicate 


ing, or. state (4) 
Participles 
Uses si ee (23) 
To assume action, be- | Infinitives 
ing, or state (25) 
| Gerunds 
(29) 
Regular (59) 
| Form..... Irregular (59, 62) 
Classes.:..5.... +o 
Meanix See (59) 
4 8. - | Intransitive (59) 
. Active (60) 
Voice..... ees (60) 
Indicative 
Mood... .4 Subjunctive } (61-64) 
aa { Imperative 
= Present 
> Past 
: ; Future 
Modifications ...; Tense. ... Present Bae (61-64) 
Past Perfect 
Future Perfect 
Singular 
N ie = Plural (61, 63, 64, 66) 
First | 
Person. ... Second ; (61, 63, 64, 66) 
, Third 
Present 
Participles ...... Tenses....+ Past (61, 63, 64) 
Past Perfect | 
Mes Present (61, 63 
Infinitives....... Tenses... . Tec ae 64) ’ 
Gerunds........ Tenses... eee (63, 64) 


GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 3033 


THE ADJECTIVE 


Modifier (6, 8) 
Predicate Adjective (18) 
Objective Complement (20) 


| Descriptive (72) 
Limiting (72) 


core e ee eo ee 


Positive 
Comparative | (73) 
Superlative 


ADJECTIVE 
Q 
wn 
oO 
n 


Modification........ Comparison 


THE ADVERB 


Modifiers (9, 10, 11) 
Re edieletars sie ccs Connectives (74, 77) 
Independent (31) 
Time 
Place 
Degree 
2 Saree Manner (74) 
Cause 
Relative | 
Interrogative 


ADVERB 
Q 
fs) 
a 
a 


Positive 
Comparative 
Superlative 


Modification........ Comparison (75) 


THE CONJUNCTION, THE PREPOSITION, AND 
THE INTERJECTION 


CONJUNCTION Uses (16) Sie 
Ciaceds | Coordinating (77) 


Subordinating 
No Modifications 


PREPOSITION. Uses..... (14, 78) 
No Classes 
No Modifications 
INTERJECTION Uses..... (16, 31, 79) 


No Classes 
No Modifications 


TOPICS FOR ORAL AND WRITTEN 


21. 
22. 


COMPOSITION 


NARRATION 
S. O. S. (The wireless call for help used by a ship at sea.) 


. A heroic act by a fireman. 
. The treasure I didia’t find. 
. A Hallowe’en scare. 

. The history of our house. 


A Boy-scout expedition. 


. An adventure of a Camp-fire girl. 

. Getting a job for the summer. 

. The old trapper’s story. 

. When some one played a joke on me. 

. My unlucky day. 

. The play that won the game. 

. Lost in the forest. 

. My best fish story. 

. The package I found. 

. An anecdote about Washington (or some other famous 


person). 


. An amusing mishap. 

. My narrow escape. 

. A day at the fair. 

. Following the blazed trail. 


DESCRIPTION 


A corner in a museum. 
My neighbor’s back yard. 


23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34, 
30. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 


41. 
42, 
43. 
44, 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
ol. 
52. 
53. 


TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION 


A description of a fire. 

The swimming hole: 

The most attractive schoolroom I know. 
The ice storm. 

An old-fashioned garden. 

An interesting home. 

Our neighbor’s hens. 

Habits of my dog. 

Queer pets I have had. 

Treasures of our attic. 

A gypsy camp. 

The picture that I like best. 

Tramps I have met. 

An interesting family. 

The person I liked best in the circus. 
The toy-shop window. 

Our playground. 

A journey in a train. 


EXPOSITION 


How to tie knots. 

How to make a fire without matches. 
How to build a fire in the stove. 
How to care for the furnace. 

How to set a table. 

How to cut and store ice. 

How to send in a fire alarm. 

How to make out a money order. 


335 


What every pupil can do to make home pleasanter. | 


How to help keep the streets clean. 
The duties of an umpire. 

The habits of the honey. bee. 

A cream separator. 


336 


54. 
5d. 
56. 
57. 
o8. 
59. 
60. 


61. 
62. 
63. 


64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 


71. 
ioe 


73. 
74. 


75. 
76. 
(te 


78. 


TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION 


A cotton-gin. 

An aéroplane. 

A thermometer. 

A glacier. 

A volcano. 

Some piece of machinery. 
A modern invention. 


ARGUMENT 


Why every one should keep a tash account. 

Why is my favorite sport. 

Why history (or any other study) is the most useful 
school study. 

Why I would rather live in the country than in the city. 
Does it pay to stay in school until graduation? 

What I consider the greatest inte Moa 

Canoeing versus sailing. 

What I wish to do when I am grown, and why. 

Should a boy, or girl, have an allowance? | 

A comparison of two books (or characters, animals, 
etc.) with reasons for the preference. 

Should children be told the truth about Santa Claus? 
Persuade a boy who is unfair in school games to play 
according to the rules. 

Persuade a friend to join the Audubon Society. 
Resolved: that the schools should close on = 
Day. 

Resolved: that pupils should buy their own books. 
Resolved: that a park is needed in our neighborhood. 
Resolved: that our grade needs more supplementary 
reading books. 

Resolved: that every boy or girl should have a high- 
school education. 


81. 


82. 


84. 


85. 


86. 


87. 


88. 


rea 


90. 


TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION 337 


- Resolved: that our school needs a gymnasium. 
- Resolved: that Congress should prohibit the manu- 


facture and sale of alcoholic liquor. 


LETTERS 


Write a letter to a friend, telling him about some books 
you think he will enjoy. 

You have sent a baseball to your aunt and a sewing 
bag to a grammar-school boy. Write to them both, 
explaining the mistake. 


. A family has moved into town, next door to you. 


Write to a friend in another town and describe the new 
neighbors, their phonograph, and their pets. 

You have been asked to be on a committee, but do 
not wish to accept. Write a note to the chairman. 
You have just been to an unusual and jolly party. 
Write to your cousin who is to give a party soon 
and has asked for suggestions. 

Write to a boy who is interested in collecting stamps 
and tell him how you made your collection. 

A friend, who is going to live in another state, must 


take a long journey on the train. Write g, letter to 


amuse him on the trip. [Illustrate it. 

You want your cousin in Duluth to become acquainted 
with your best friend, who is going there to live. Write 
so that your cousin will really wish to meet your friend. 
You are planning to buy a bicycle. Write a letter to a 
company that manufactures bicycles, desciibing the 
kind of bicycle that you want and asking for informa- 
tion as to styles and prices. 
Write a letter ordering a bicycle. Include in your order 
several extra parts, such as a bicycle lamp, a carrier 
for books, and a pump. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Abbreviations, with a few exceptions, are not allowable in or- 
dinary ccmposition, including letters. They are convenient, how- 
ever, in making lists, in literary references, and in certain technical — 
writing where a term occurs frequently. 


Titles preceding names, with the few exceptions found in the fol- 
lowing list, should not be abbreviated. A title standing alone 
should always be spelled in full; as, Dr. Brown came, The doctor 
came. , 


Words expressing quantity should be abbreviated only when 
they follow a numeral; as, The tile 1s 2 in. by 3 in., They advanced 
by inches. 


Ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc. are not followed by the p viod. Their 
principal use is in the writing of dates. 


The abbreviations for states, territories, and pczsessions of the 
United States are those authorized by the government. 


The abbreviations for measures are used for both singular and 
plural, unless otherwise stated. For example, A. stands for acre 
and for acres, in. for inch and for inches. 


STATES, TERRITORIES, AND POSSESSIONS OF THE | 
UNITED STATES 


Ala., Alabama. Del., Delaware. 
Ariz., Arizona. Fla., Florida. 
Ark., Arkansas. Ga., Georgia. 
Cal., California. Til., Llinois. 
Colo., Colorado. Ind., Indiana. 
Conn., Connecticut. Kans., Kansas. 


D. C., Dictrict of Columbia. Ky., Kentucky. ! at 


ABBREVIATIONS 339 


La., Louisiana. 

Mass., Massachusetts. 
Md., Maryland. 

Me., Maine. 

Mich., Michigan. 
Minn., Minnesota. 
Miss., Mississippi. 
Mo., Missouri. 

Mont., Montana. 

N. C., North Carolina. 


N. Dak., North Dakota. 


Nebr., Nebraska. 
Nev., Nevada. 


N. H., New Hampshire. 


N. J., New Jersey. 
N. Mex., New Mexico. 
N. Y., New York. 


Okla., Oklahoma. 
Oreg., Oregon. 

Pa., Pennsylvania. 

P. I., Philippine Islands. 
P.R., Porto Rico. 


R.I., Rhode Island. 


S. C., South Carolina. 
S. Dak., South Dakota. 
Tenn., Tennessee. 
Tex., Texas. 

Va., Virginia. 

Vt., Vermont. 

Wash., Washington. 
Wis., Wisconsin. 

W. Va., West Virginia. 
Wyo., Wyoming. 


Alaska, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Ohio, Samoa, and 
Utah should not be abbreviated. 


MONTHS OF THE YEAR 


- Jan., January. 
Feb., February. 
Mar., March. 
Apr., April. 
Aug., August. 


Sept., September. 
Oct., October. 
Nov., November. 
Dec., December. 


‘M ay, J une, and July should not be AUSSIE 


DAYS OF THE WEEK 


Sun., Sunday. 
Mon., Monday. 
Tues., Tuesday. 

~ Wed., Wednesday. 


Thurs., Thursday. 
Fri., Friday. 
sat., Saturday. 


340 


ABBREVIATIONS 


GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS 


A., acre. 
@, at. 


acct. or a/c, account. 


A.D., (Anno Domini) in the 


year of our Lord. 


a.m., (ante meridiem) before 


noon. 

amt., amount. 
anon., anonymous. 
ans., answer. 

art., article. 

Ave., Avenue. 


B.A., Bachelor of Arts. 
bbl., barrel. 

B.C., before Christ. 

B.S., Bachelor of Science. 
bu., bushel. 


d., penny, pence. 

D.D., Doctor of Divinity. 

doz., dozen. 

Dr., Doctor, Debit, Debtor. 

e.g., (evempli gratia) for ex- 
ample. 

Esq., Esquire. 

etc., (et cetera) and so forth. 

ex., example. 

ore Tere 

F., Fahrenheit (thermometer). 

ff., following. 

f.o.b., free on board. 

fr., franc. 

ft., foot. 


g. or gm., gram. 
_gal., gallon. 


C., centigrade (thermometer). 


c., (circa) about. 

¢ or ct., cent. 

C.E., Civil Engineer. 

cf., (confer) compare. 
ch., chapter. 

cm., centimeter. 

Co., Company, County. * 
c/o, in care of. 

C.O.D., cash on delivery. 
Cr., Credit, Creditor. 
cu., cubic. : 

cwt., hundredweight. 


hdkf., handkerchief. 

hhd., hogshead. 

Hon., Honorable. 

h.p., horse power. 

H. R., House of Represen- 
tatives. 

hr., hour. 


ib. or ibid., (cbidem) in the 
same place. 
id., (dem) the same. 


_--i. e., (id est) that is. 


ABBREVIATIONS 341 


—in., Inch. “Mrs., (pronounced Mis‘is or 
—~Inc., Incorporated. Mis’iz). 
inst., instant, the present —MS., manuscript; MSS., 
month. manuscripts. 


| Mt., Mount or Mountain. 
J.P., Justice of the Peace. 
Jr., Junior. N.B., (nota bene) note well. 
no., number. 
kg., kilogram. | 


_km., kilometer. Op. cit., (opere citato) in the 
“work quoted. 
£, pound sterling. ~..0Z., ounce. 
Ib., pound. | 
~~ LL.D., Doctor of Laws. p., page; pp., pages. ) 
Ltd., Limited. -per cent or %, by the hun- 
dred. 
M., Monsieur. Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy. 
m., meter, noon, mark. _- pk., peck. 
~~M.A., Master of Arts. _/p.m., (post meridiem) after- 
M.C., Member of Congress. | noon. 
~M.D., Doctor of Medicine. “P. O., Post Office. 
- ~mdse., merchandise. pro tem., (pro tempore) for 
‘M.E., Mechanical Engineer. _ the time being. 
Messrs., Messieurs. prox., (proximo) the next 
——.mfg., manufacturing. month. 
mfr., manufacturer. ~ PS., Postscript. 
Megr., Manager. pt., pint. 
mi., mile. 
min., minute.  qt., quart. 
Mile., Mademoiselle. q.v., (quod vide) which see. 
mim., millimeter. qy-, query. 
Mme., Madame. 
~mo., month. Rev., Reverend. 


__Mr., Mister. R.R., Railroad. 


342 ABBREVIATIONS 


R.S.V.P., (Répondez s’il vous  ult., (ultimo) last month. 
plait) Answer, if you please. U.S.A., United States of 


Ry., Railway. America; United States 
Army. 
s., shilling. U.S.N., United States Navy. 
sec., second, secretary. 
Sen., Senator. viz., (videlicet) to wit, name- 
sp.gr., specific gravity. ly. 
Sq., square. vol., volume. 
Sr., Senior. vs., (versus) against. 
St., Street, Saint. 
Supt., Superintendent. yd., yard. 
yr., year. 


ibs) FOR: 


CONTENTS OF 
LEE’S LESSONS IN ENGLISH, BOOK TWO 


ARRANGED TO COMBINE PARTS ONE AND TWO 


It frequently happens that the teacher wishes to combine 
the lessons in Grammar and in Composition in such a way as 
to divide the work of the days of the school week between 
the two subjects. To meet this requirement, a combined 
Table of Contents is here given, arranging the lessons in 
Part One and Part Two in the form of a complete and 
unified outline for the year’s study. 


' LESSON : PAGE 


Perec Oley OFS 1). eee Oe ee 6 eo AL dd 
Ze W Ord Dtudy, en. St Ee SE: 
3. The Use of Capital are Ee oes Sieg aay varie WA 
4. Parts of the Sentence . . . Mecedt teeing iy cae 85, 
5. Sentences Classified According fa tite Gui ctat: ree err WhO 
Re W teen Cmbes se ee Me ce LS 
Se it, MS ee es cet 18 
Ty ese ke gs ees es ee ID 


9. Pronouns . . S| ih are Lees E nycaoe aoa | 
10. Three Little Mast POM ceik ie tgs eer Leek 
11. Punctuation . . . atte act Miaka tied ba" 
12. Modifiers; Analysis of Bedtarices AS whl = ak ee 
13. Diagrams ori ae it ay ae-5 
14. Variety in the Structure Psi Gearenres Soaps gene a beta 
PM CCUN CS e 5. edit i ie Me ts ey esto eves af ae 


16. Predicate Modifiers . ry res ee Pe ea O 


344 CONTENTS 

LESSON 

17. Other Modifiers . ck Care 
18. Variety in the Structure of Sentences 
19. Variety in the Structure of Sentences 
Pea Adverbs i520. spe Siarevels 

21. Analysis of Benteneds BASE Aut 

Bo OMY.” OF2 ay OOM Lip euawine es ce 

23. Paragraphs; Outlines . . 


24. A Phrase Introduced by a Preposition . 


25. Prepositions 
26. Oral Composition; A Talk 


27. Compound Subject and Compound Predige he 


28. Dictation; Paragraphs . : 
29. Gon ahonene and Interjections . 
30," Description 7. Pa. 6) a eee 
St. Punctuation “4%. >. 

32. Complements; The Diet Ghee 


33. Predicate Adjective and Predicate Noun 


34. Picture Study and Description 
35. Analysis and Parsing . . . 
ob. Narration: fin. 48 > teens 
37. Some Common Hye Pe, orto 
38. Objective Complements .. . 
- 39. Analysis and Parsing . ... 


40. Review .. . ones 
41. Reasoning from Gifscreataon ‘gg 
42, Participles *s . Y.. Bo a aaa 


43. Functions of Bar nie Shir aes 
44. Telling the News from the Paper 
45. Infinitives Biss ow wate 
46. Functions of Tan niciae : 


e 


47. Functions of infinitives; Infinitive Clauses. 


48. Letter-paper and Envelopes . 
49. Letters of Friendship ee 
50. Review of Participles and Tnferieeree: 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 


5d. 
. Gerunds . 

. Picture Study Jaf Deverntiene 

. Punctuation; The Comma 

. Nouns as Moidifiers; Appositives ; 
. Dictation; Arrangement of Rhyming es : 
. The Barts of aLetter ... 

. Words and Phrases Used Independently 
. Study of a Speech . 

. The Use of Adjectives .. . 

. Nouns as Adverbial Modifiers . 

. Review . . itso tat gNaee Te 

. Study of a Be ; 

. Punctuation of Compound ee nee 

. Complex Sentences . 

- Complex Sentences; hi cetios pauses 

. The Heading of a Deties fe : 
. Complex Sentences; Adverbial i ; 
. Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses . 
. Oral Composition; Reports on Reading 

. Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses . 
. Picture Study and Description 

. Complex Sentences; Substantive ree 
. Complex Seen: Substantive Clauses 
. Exposition . : ; 
. Review of Complex and Spot Sentences 
. A School Paper . 

. The Preparation of Rieu ari, 

. Review of Complex Sentences . 

. Exposition . 

. Dictation; Carcet Backs 

; eecund Sentences MA oh ci ka eas 
peowauComposition:, Av Talk “gs. soy le 
. Complex and Compound Clauses . 


Writing Quotations . . .... 


346 


LESSON 


85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
. Various Uses of the Comma 

. Classes of Nouns 

. Classes of Pronouns 

. Dictation; Letter-writing . 

. The Body of the Letter and Fs ‘Cle settee 


CONTENTS 


Essential and Non-essential Clauses 
Review of Sentences . 

Review of Sentences . 

Description of a Painting 

Address and Salutation of Letters 
The Order of Modifiers . 

Review of Analysis 

Description of a Building 


of Introduction 


. Nouns and Pronouns: nignber 

. Nouns and Pronouns: Gender 

. A Conversation on Current Events 

. Exposition ate 

. Nouns and Pronceee persen : 

. Nouns and Pronouns: Case 

. Nouns and Pronouns: Person and Case 
. Narration . 

. The Declension of Nowtag mae Prono 
. Narration: Biography ; 

. Narration: Autobiography . 

. Possessive Forms 

. Forms of the Pronoun 

. Punctuation: Colon, Dash, Parenthesa 
. Analysis and Parsing . 

. Business Letters 

. Letter-writing: The Rretares sad “the Super 


SCriptlon cis, ash) ee 
« Classes: of “Verbs'.) 4.4 Ves es ee ee eee 


./ Verbs:: Voices. Ox) oh Pe ee 


CONTENTS 
LESSON 
117. Verbs: Mood and Tense ; 
118. Composition: Description of a Motion Miche d 
119. Conjugation of Verbs 
120. Conjugation of the verb Be 
121. Exposition : 
122. Conjugation of ee in ite Simple Ort : 
1238. Special Forms of the Verb 
124. Agreement of the Verb . 
125. Letter-writing 
126. Folding the Letter 
127. The Use of Shall and Will 
128. Review of Verbs 
129. Synonyms and Antonyms; ae of ae Tone 
130. Argument . ; 
131. The Proper Use é ive foie Lay, De Sit, Set : 
132. Errors of Speech Sie ah 
133. Description of a Painting 
134. Analysis; Parsing Verbs . 
135. Argument . ae 
136. Debating . : 
137. Classes of Met ectives : 
138. Comparison of Adjectives 
139. Letter-writing 
140. Dictation .. 
141. Classes of Raweee : 
142. Comparison of Adverbs . 
143. Notes and Invitations 3 
144. The Correct Use of abeaves nae Phare 
145. Argument . ina a Fi tl he ee ase eae P 
146. Debating 
147. Conjunctions 
148. Prepositions . Ra LAR. Ge Nah Bee any ae 
149. Interjections . . . : 
150. Words aie as ae Parts a Seccl™ 


347 
PAGE 
124 
265 
128 
132 
266 
134 
139 
141 
267 
267 
142 
145 
269 
271 
145 
148 
272 
150 
273 
275 
151 
154 
279 
280 
156 
159 
289 
160 


. 284 


285 
163 
165 
167 
167 


348 CONTENTS 


LESSON PAGE 


151. Telegrams .. PEM 
152. Writing A duesuteernenes i <table eee 
153. Letters of Application Ree tet gt! 
154. Study of a Speech . oss Ses 
155. The Minutes of a ieetiier MP 


INDEX 


A, an, correct use of, 221. 
Abbreviations, 177, 183, 228, 
250, 264. : 
Absolute, nominative, 105. 
phrases, 54, 67, 105, 247. 
Abstract nouns, 95, 96. 
Accusative case, 106. 


' Active voice, 122. 


Address, nominative of, 105. 
words independent by, 66, 247. 
Adjective clauses 72-76, 238, 
244. 
modifiers, 55, 57, 64. 
phrases, 31. 
Adjectives, articles, 24, 152. 
classes of, 151-153. 
common, 152. 
comparison, 154, 160. 
correct use of 160-162, 220- 
222) 
defined, 24, 152. 
- definitive, 151. 
derived from verbs, 51. 
descriptive, 151, 152. 
limiting, 151, 152. 
numeral, 153. 
position of, 222. 
predicate, 43. 
pronominal, 98, 152. 
proper, 152. 
use of, 24. 
Adverbial clauses, 76-82, 239. 
’ modifiers, 57, 69. 
phrases, 31. 
Adverbs, classes of, 156-158. 
comparison, 159, 160. 
correct use of, 160-162. 


Adverbs, defined, 29, 156. 
interrogative, 157. 
modifying a phrase, 157. 
of cause, 157. 
of degree, 157. 
of manner, 157. 
of place, 156. 
of time, 156. 
position in sentence, 243. 
prepositions and, 158, 166. 
relative, 157, 164. 
used independently, 67, 157. 
Advertisements, answering, 290. 
writing, 288. 
Affirmative sentences, 17. 
side of debate, 276. 
Ain't, an incorrect form, 149. 
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence, study 
of painting by, 272. 
Among, between, correct use of, 
204. 


Analysis, explained, 22. 
And, correct use of, 179-181. 
Antecedents of pronouns, 98,116. 
Antonyms, 270. 
Apostrophe in contractions, 139, 
140, 184. 
in plurals, 108, 184. 
indicating possession, 113, 114, 
184. 
Application, letters of, 290. 
Appositives, 60, 65, 83, 85, 108, 
247. 
Argument, 271-279, 284-286. 
Articles, 24, 152. 
As, a relative pronoun, 112. 
and as if, correct use of, 164. 


300 


“At Morning,” by Stevenson, 
182. 

“At the Watering Trough,” 
painting by Dagnan- 
Bouveret, 214. 

Attribute complement, 43, 44, 
53, 58, 59, 83, 85, 105-107. 

Autobiography, 254, 258. 

Auxiliary, verbs, 129. 

Be, conjugation of, 182-134. 

Between, among, correct use of, 
204. 

Biography, 257. 

Brief for debate, 277. 

Brown, Dr. John, selection from, 
KEE Span 2 

Business letters, 208, 209, 242, 
243, 261, 262, 280. 

But, correct use of, 179-181. 


Capital letters, rules for use of, 
A718, 21 G26, sh Tete 
20, 200. 

Cardinal numeral, 153. 

Cases of nouns and pronouns, 
105-108. 

Cause, adverbial clause of, 79. 

adverbs of, 157. 

“Chambered Nautilus, 
by Holmes, 223. 

Clauses, adjective, 72-76, 238, 
244. 

adverbial, 76-82, 239. 

complex, 90. 

compound, 90. 

connectives of, 39, 97, 157, 
163, 164. 

codrdinate, 163. 

‘defined, 72. 

essential, 238. 

infinitive, 59, 61, 106. 

non-essential, 238. 

principal, 72, 88, 89, 225. 

subordinate, 72, 163. 

substantive, 82-86. 


The,’’, 


INDEX 


Collective noun, 95, 96. 

Colon, rules for use of, 212, 243, 
258. ; 

“Columbus,” by Joaquin Miller, 
192. 


Comma, general rules for use of, 
212, 215, 225, 238, 247, 259. 
in letters, 228, 242, 243, 250, 
264. 
Common adjectives, 152. 
nouns, 18, 95. 
Comparative degree, 154, 160. 
Comparison, of adjectives, 154, 
160. 
of adverbs, 159-161. 
Complement, attribute, 43, 44, 
53, 58, 59, 83, 85, 105-107. 
compound object, 41. 
defined, 41. 
objective, 47, 53, 59, 106. 
Complete predicate, 25. 
subject, 22. 
verb, 120. 
Complex clauses, 90. 
phrases, 49. 
sentences, 72, 73, 321-325. 
Composition, oral, 196, 206, 
207, 229, 234, 237, 252, 257, 
285. 
preparation of manuscript for, 
234. 
sentence structure in, 178-181. — 
Compound clause, 90. 
conjunctions, 164. 
noun, 103, 114. 
object complement, 41. 
object of a preposition, 48. 
personal pronouns, 111. 
phrase, 49. 
predicate, 36, 37. 
prepositions, 166. 
relative pronouns, 113. 
sentences, 88, 225, 321-325. 
subject, 36, 37. 
Concession, adverbial clause of, 
81. | 


INDEX 


Condition, adverbial clause of, 
80 


Conjugation of verbs, 128-138. 

Conjunctions, 39, 163, 164. 

Coérdinate clauses, 163. 

‘Coordinating conjunctions, 163, 
164. 

Correlative conjunctions, 164. 

Craigie House, picture of, for 
study, 246. 

Current events, 206, 252. 


Dagnan-Bouveret, study of a 
painting by, 214. 
Darwin, Charles, selection from, 
205. 
Dash, use of, 259. 
Dative case, 106. 
Davenport, Eugene, 
from, 273. 
Day letters, 286. 
Debating, 275-279, 285. 
Declarative sentences, 17, 183. 
Declension of nouns and _ pro- 
nouns, 109-112. 
Definite article, 152. 
Definitive adjectives, 151. 
Degree, adverbial clause of, 77. 
adverbs of, 157. 
Demonstrative pronoun, 98. 
Description, 198-201, 214, 231, 
241, 246, 265, 272. 
Descriptive adjectives, 151, 152. 
Diagrams, directions for, 28. 
Dictation, exercises in, 198, 200, 
214, 217, 236, 249, 260, 280. 
Dictionary, use of, 173-175, 
184, 207, 223, 269-271, 293, 
296-311. 
Direct object, 41, 58, 61, 63, 69, 
82, 84, 106, 128. 
question, 211. 
quotation, 177, 211. 
“Discussion, The,” painting by 
* Anton Seitz, 231. 


selection 


* Distinguished. Member of the 


ool 


Humane Society, A,’’ paint- 
ing by Landseer, 200. 

Division of word at end of a line, 
184. 

Don’t, doesn’t, correct use of, 
140. 

Double negative, incorrect, 140, 
162 


possessive form, 114. 


Emphatic form of verb, 139. 

Envelopes, correct use of, 208. 

Essential clauses, 238. 

Evidence, adverbial clause of, 
80 


Exclamation, 
105: . 
point, use of, 17, 184, 213. 
words independent by, 66, 
105. 
Exclamatory sentence, 1, 184. 
Expletive, 60, 85. 
Exposition, 231, 239, 237, 253. 
266. 


nominative of, 


Feminine gender, 103. 

Finite verb, 126. 

Folding of letters, 267. 

For, infinitive clause introduced 
by, 59, 61. 

Franklin, Benjamin, 
from, 231. 

Friendship, letters of, 208-211, 
217, 242, 243. 

Function of word determines its 
part of speech, 167. 

Future perfect tense, 125, 127. 

tense, 125, 127. 


selection 


Gender of nouns and pronouns, 
103. 


‘Genitive case, 106. 


Gerund, 62-64, 127. 

Got, correct use of, 148. 

Grady, Henry Woodfin, selec- 
tion from, 198. 


352 


Gray, Thomas, selection from, 
vA iN 

Gruenberg, rnc selection 
from, 271. 


“Habit of Angleworms, A,’ by 
Charles Darwin, 205. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, selection 
from, 194. 

Heading of composition, 235. 

Here, correct use of, 161. 

His, correct use of, 117. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, ‘The 
Chambered Nautilus,” 223. 


Idiom, explained, 60. 
Imperative mood, 124, 126. 
sentences, 17, 183. 
Impersonal verb, 126. 
Indefinite article, 152. 
pronoun, 98. 
Indention of paragraph, 235. 
Independent words and phrases, 
39, 60, 66-68, 105, 108, 157, 
167, 247. 
Indicative mood, 124, 126. 
Indirect object, 69, 106, 107, 
1238. 
question, 84, 86, 212. 
quotation, 212. 
Infinite verbs, 126. 
Infinitive clauses, 59, 61, 106. 
phrases, 55. 
Infinitives, 54-61, 67, 126, 150. 
Intensive pronouns, 111. 
Interjections, 39, 67, 167. 
Interrogative adverbs, 157. 
form of verb, 139. 
pronouns, 97, 111, 112. 
sentences, 17, 184. 
Intransitive verbs, 119-121. 
Introduction, letters of, 251. 
Invitations, 282. 
Irregular verbs, 121, 129, 130. 
Irving, Washington, letter from, 
210. 


INDEX 


Landseer, Edwin, study of a 
painting by, 200. ° 
Lay, correct use of, 145, 146. 
Lee, Robert E., letter from, 280. 
Letter from Abraham Lincoln, 
249, 
from Robert E. Lee, 280. 
from Washington Irving, 210. 
specimen, 209. 
Letters, body of, 250. 
business, 208, 209, 242, 243, 
261, 262, 280. 
complimentary close of, 250. 
day, 286. | 
envelopes, 208. 
exercises in writing, 211, 219, 
243, 252, 265, 267, 279, 283, 
291. 
folding, 267. 
heading of, 227. 
inside address of, 241. 
invitations, 282. 
night, 286. 
notes, 280. 
of application, 290. 
of friendship, 208-211, 217, 
242, 243. 
of introduction, 251. 
paper for, 207. 
parts of, 217. 
punctuation of, 227, 228, 242, 
243, 263, 264. 
return direction of, 264. 
salutation of, 242. 
signature of, 263. 
superscription of, 263. 
Leutze, study of painting by, 
241 | 


Iie, correct use of, 145, 146. 
Like, correct use of, 164. 
Limiting adjectives, 151, 152. 
Lincoln, Abraham, anecdote 
about, 175. : 

letter from, 249. 

selection from, 254. 
Linking verb, 120. 


INDEX 


Manner, adverbial clauses of, 79. 
adverbs of, 157. 


Manuscript, preparation of, 234. © 


Masculine gender, 103. 
Miller, Joaquin, “Columbus,” 
192. 
Minutes of a meeting, 293. 
Modal auxiliaries, 129. 
Modifiers, adjectives as, 21, 24. 
adverbs as, 25, 28. 
clauses as, 72-82. 
connectives of, 39. 
defined, 22. 
infinitives as, 55, 57. 
nouns as, 64, 69. 
order of, 243. 
phrases as, 31. 
Mood of verbs, 124, 126. 
Motion picture, description of, 
2165.5 
“My Native Land,” by Scott, 
182. 


Narration, 195, 197, 201, 254, 
257, 258, 265. 


Naturalization, exposition of, | 


266. 
Negative contractions, correct 
use of, 140. 


double, incorrect, 140, 162. 

sentences, 17, 139. 

side of debate, 276. 
Neuter gender, 103. 
Newspapers, telling the news 

from, 206. 

Night letters, 286. 
No, a sentence word, 158. 
Nominative absolute, 105. 

case, 105. 

of address, 105. 

of exclamation, 105. 
Non-essential clause, 238. 
Notes, 280. 
Nouns, abstract, 95, 96. 

as adjective modifiers, 64. 

as adverbial modifiers, 69, 107. 


393 


Nouns, cases of, 105-108. 
collective, 95, 96. 
common, 18, 95. 
compound, 103, 114. 
declension of, 109. 
defined, 18, 95. 
derived from verbs, 51, 62, 64. 
gender of, 103. 
model for parsing, 118. 
number of, 100-103. 
person of, 104. 
predicate, 44, 106. 
proper, 18, 95, EE. 
subjects of sentences, 18, 105. 
used independently, 66, 67, 

105, 108, 247. 
Number of nouns and pronouns, 
100-103. 

of verbs, 126, 127. 

Numeral adjectives, 153. 


Object, compound, of a preposi- 
tion, 48. ~ 
direct, 41, 58, 61, 63, 69, 82, 
84, 106, 123. 
indirect, 69, 106, 107, 123. 
of a preposition, 34, 48, 58, 61. 
retained, 123. 

Objective case, 106. 
complement, 47, 53, 59, 106. 
Observation, reasoning from, 

205. 
“Opportunity,” by Sill, 183. 
Oral composition, 196, 206, 207, 
929, 234, 237, 252, 257, 285. 
Ordinal numeral, 153. 
Outlines, defined, 195. 
exercises in, 195, 196, 199, 206, 
257, 284. 


Paragraphs, defined, 194. 
exercises in, 195, 196, 198, 284, 
311-320. 
in quotations, 213. 
indention of, 235. 
Parenthesis, marks of, 259. 


304 


Parsing, definition of, 24. 

models for written, 24, 34, 40, 
118, 150. 

Participial phrases, 51. 

Participles, defined, 50, 127. 
functions of, 50- 54, 67, 166. 
model for parsing, 150. 
position in sentence, 244. 
tenses of, 127, 138. 

Passive voice, 122, 131. 

Past participle, 127,.138hk 
perfect participle, 12% 
perfect tense, 125, 127. 
tense, 125, 127, 131. 

Period, ‘rules for use of, 17, 183, 

228, 242, 263. 
Person of nouns and pronouns, 
104. 
of verbs, 126, 127. 
Personal pronouns, 97, 110, 115- 
175-149; 
Phrases, absolute, 54, 67, 1u5, 
O47, 
adjective, 31. 
adverbial, 31. 
complex, 49. 
compound, 49, 
connectives of, 39, 163. 
defined, 31. 
independent, 60, 66, 67, 247, 
infinitive, 55. 
participial, 51. 
position in sentence, 244. 
prepositional, 34. 
principal terms of, 34, 58, 61, 
63, 83, 86. 
substantive, 55. 
verb, 125, 

Place, adverbial clauses of, 77. 
adverbs of, 156. 

Pleonasm, 67, 247. 

Plural number, 100. 
of nouns, 100-103. 

Positive degree, 154. 

Possessive case, 106, 113, 114, 
pronouns, 98, 110, 117, 153. 


INDEX 


Predicate adjective, 43. 
complete, 25. 
compound, 36, 37. 
noun, 44, 106. 
ofa sentence, 15, 25, 36, 37. 
simple, 25. 
verb, 25, 
Prepositional phrases, 34. 
Prepositions, 34, 48, 158, 165, 
166. 


Present participle, 127. 
perfect tense, 125, 127. 
tense, 125, 197, 
Principal clauses, 72, 88, 89, 225. 
Progressive form of ‘verb, 139. 
Pronominal adjectives, 98, 152. 
Pronouns, antecedents of, 98, 
116. 
cases of, 105-108. 
classes of, 97, 98. 
compound personal, ELL: 
compound relative, 113. 
correct use of, 116-117; 
declension of, 110-112, 
defined, 21, 97. 
demonstrative, 98. . 
gender of, 103. 
indefinite, 98. 
intensive, 111. 
interrogative, SY ia i BN Bp 
person of, 104. 
personal, 97, 110, 115-117, 
149, 


possessive, 98, 110, 117, 153. 
reflexive, 111. 
relative, 97, 111-118, 116, 164. 
Pronunciation, 304. . 
Proper adjectives, 152. 
nouns, 18, 95, 17h 
Punctuation, apostrophe, 184. 
colon, 212. 243, 258. 
comma, 212, 215, 225, 228, 
238, 249, 243, 247, 250, 259, 
264. 
dash, 259. 
exclamation point, 17,184,213. 


INDEX 


Punctuation, marks of paren- 
thesis, 259. 
of letters, 227, 228, 242, 243, 
263, 264. 
of quotations, 211-213. 
of sentences, 178-180, 225, 
238. 
period, 17, 183, 228, 242, 263. 
question mark, 17, 184, 212, 
213. 
semicolon, 225. 
Purpose, adverbial clause of, 81. 


Question, direct, 211. 
indirect, 84, 86, 212. 
mark, rules for use of, 17, 184, 
212, 213. 
Quotation, direct, 177, 211. 
indirect, 212. 
marks, 211-213. 


“Reading from Homer, A,” by 
Alma-Tadema, study of, 
272. 

Reading, reports on, 229. 

Reasoning from _ observation, 
205. 

Reflexive pronouns, 111. 

Regular verb, 120, 121. 

Relative adverbs, 157, 164. 

pronouns, 97, 111-113, 116, 
164. 

Reports on reading, 229. 

Result, adverbial clause of, 77. 

- Retained object, 123. 

Rhymed verses, arrangement of, 
217. 

Rus, Jacob A., 
201 


Rothschild, Alonzo, 
from, 175. 


selection from, 


selection 


School paper, 233. 

Scott, Sir Walter, “My Native 
Land, AALS2! 

See, conjugation of, 134-138. 


855 


Seitz, Anton, study of a painting 
by, 231 
Semicolon, rule for use of, 225. 
Sentence words, 158. 
Sentences, affirmative, 17. 
complex, (ap 40: 321-325. 
composition of, 178-181. 
compound, 88, 225, 321-325. 
declarative, 17, 183. 
defined, 15. 
exclamatory, 17, 184. 
imperative, 17, 183. 
interrogative, 17, 184. 
negative, 17, 189. 
predicate of, 15, 25, 36, 37. 
punctuation of, 178-180, 225, 
238. 

simple, 72, 73. 

subject of, 15, 22, 36, 37, 58, 
59, 63, 82, 83, 105, 123. 

topic, 200. 

variety in, 185-191. 

Serviss, Garrett Pe 

from, 166. 

Set, correct use of, 145, 146. 

Shall, correct use of, 142 143. 
modal auxiliary, 129. 

Should, correct use of, 143. 

- modal auxiliary, 129. 

Sill, Edward Rowland, ‘‘Oppor- 

tunity’ 183, .. 

Simple conjunctions, 164, 
form of the verb, 134, 139. 
predicates, 25. 
prepositions, 166. 
sentences, 72, 73. 
subjects, 22. 

Singular number, 100. 

Sit, correct use of, 145, 146. 

Speech, errors of, 115, 140-149, 

160, 203, 220, 236, 243, 326. 
Split infinitive, 55. 
Stevenson, Robert Louis, selec- 

tions from, 19, 182. 

Strong verbs, 129. 

Subject, complete, 22. 


selection 


356 


Subject, compound, 36, 37. 
of a sentence, 15, 22, 36, 58, 
59, 63, 82, 83, 105. 
of an infinitive clause, 59, 106. 
simple, 2 
cee 22. 
Subjunctive mood, 124, 126. 
Subordinate clauses, 72, 163. 
Subordinating conjunctions, 163, 
164. 
Substantive clauses, 82-86. 
phrases, 55. 
Substantives, defined, 21. 
subject, 22. 
Superlative degree, 154, 160. 
Synonyms, 270. 
Synopsis, 128. 
Syntax, 118. 


Talks, how to give, 196, 238. 

Telegrams, 286. 

Tenses of verbs, 125-127, 131. 

Them, those, correct use of, 161, 
221. 

Then, correct use of, 179-181. 

There, correct use of, 161. 

Those, them, correct use of, 161, 
221. 

Time, adverbial clauses of, 76. 

adverbs of, 156. 

Titles, plural of, 102. 

Topic sentence, ’200. 

Transitive verbs, 119-121. 

“Tribute to the Dog Ay by 
Vest, 219. 


Van Dyke, 
from, 253. 
Verb phrase, 125; 
Verbs, agreement of, 125, 141. 
auxiliary, 129. 
classes of, 119. 
complete, 120. 
conjugation of, 128-138. 
contractions of, 139, 140. 
defined, 20, 121, 
emphatic form of, 139. 


Henry, selection 


INDEX 


Verbs, finite, 126. 
impersonal, 126. 
infinite, 126. 
interrogative form of, 139, 
intransitive, 119-121. 
irregular, 121, 129, 130. 
linking, 120. 
modal auxiliaries, 129. 
model for parsing, 150. 
mood of, 124, 126. 
number of, 126, 127, 
person of, 126, 127, 

| predicate, 25. 
principal parts of, 129, 130. 
progressive form of, 139. 
regular, 120, 121. 
simple form. of, 134, 139. 
strong, 129. 
tenses of, 125-127, 131. 
transitive, 119-121. 
voice of, 122, 23: 
weak, 129, 

Vest, George Graham, selection 

from, 219. 

Vocabulary, 173, 300, 301. 

Vocative case, 105. 

Voices of verbs, 122, baa: 


“Washington Crossing the Dela- 
ware,” painting by Leutze, 
241. 

Washington, tribute to, by Web-- 
ster, 292. 

Weak verbs, 129, 

Webster, Daniel, selection from, 
292. 

Who, whom, correct use of, 115. 

Will, correct use of, 142, 143. 

modal auxiliary, 129, 

Words, independent, 61, 66, 67, 
105, 108, 157, 167, 247, 
used as various ‘parts of ° 
speech, 167-169. 
Would, correct use of, 143. 
modal auxiliary, 129, 


Yes, a sentence word, 158. 


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